Essay on the Middle East

French and British Mandates in the Arab World
The topic of the events in the Middle East is always in the news. What is more is that it has been in the news for over eight decades already, since the first intervention of the European Powers in the region  The following paper will deal with a topic related to the Arab countries of the area as well as the state of Israel by implication. However, the purpose of this paper is not to dwell upon the Arab-Israeli conflict, but to give an insight into the mandates exercised by Great Britain and France in the Middle East over the course of the 20th century.
 

In the early 1920s the world powers were still devastated by the results of the WWI. However, something had to be done with the problems that have arisen from the war as well the question of the territories in the Middle East was a topic of active discussion. When the Ottoman Empire was split by the Treaty of Versailles, four mandate territories were created. According to the mandate structure, the territory, aside from Turkey, was placed under monarchies. Without a shadow of doubt, as Great Britain and France, which were the dominant powers in the League of Nations (precursor to the United Nations) convinced the new League of Nations to grant them quasi-colonial power over former Ottoman territories (Fromkin, 288)1. Thus, France obtained a mandate over Syria and Britain obtained a mandate over the areas which now include Israel, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and Jordan (Gilbert, 318)2.
 

Having stated how the Middle Eastern countries were divided between the world powers I would like to continue with describing how the two countries operated the obtained mandates on their territories. During the French mandate, a number of states were created in the Greater Syria. These states were as follows:  State of Greater Lebanon State of Alawites, State of Jabal Druze, State of Aleppo, State of Damascus and Sanjak of Alexandretta. However, it does not have to be said that the Syrians were hostile to the French mandate and to the division it created. Such attitude can be proved by the great amount of revolts that the French encountered in all of the Syrian states. Though, it must be said that Lebanon as the exception between the newly formed states. This is due to the fact that the Maronite Christians of Mount Lebanon were a community with a dream of independence that was being realized under the French (Fromkin, p. 289).
 

According to the British mandate the area was divided in two parts: the east of the Jordan River became the Emirate of Transjordan, and was ruled by Abdullah, and west of the Jordan River became the Palestine Mandate. The later territory would in the future become the state of Israel. It is significant to mention that with the division of territories Great Britain decided to undertake Palestine became a unified political entity for the first time in modern history. Naturally, the Arabs in the area were infuriated as well as petrified by the actions of the Great Britain. What had heated their anger was not only the step by step politics of the Brits targeted on the creation of the state of Israel, but also the fact that Great Britain failed to fulfill its promise to create an independent Arab state (Dominus, p. 97)3.
 

Thus, as it was made clear in the previous passages, the Arab people living on the territories on both British and French mandates were unsatisfied with the situation and opposed the powers’ control. However, while under the French mandate the Arab countries were mostly concerned with self determination and independence, in Palestine the situation was complicated by many other factors (Little, pp. 159-160)4. The population of the Palestine area was horrified by the promise of the Great Britain to support the creation of a Jewish national home. Thus, the people did not accept any of the proposals incorporated into the politics of Britain, fearing that this would only tie the knot of the creation of the Jewish state (Dominus, p. 93).
 

In March 1924, Great Britain had granted an elected assembly in Iraq. Certainly, this fact brought Syrian Arabs into even bigger distress and urged them to take actions. The main objective of the Syrian Arabs was to create a nationalist party that would be dealing with the questions concerning independence and national identity. In February 1925 the French permitted the nationalists to form the People's Party that was led by Faris al Khuri. The party was created, however nothing had really changed, in my opinion, this step by the French can be described simply as a placating move they took to quiet down the people for a while. Yet, Syrian nationalists, motivated, by the permission to create their party, continued to declare that there should be a treaty with France presenting French aims (Mandel, p 38)5. When negotiating this issue the Syrian nationalists stressed the fact that Great Britain and Iraq had already signed such treaty. It is obvious, that the French were not eager to sign a treaty of that kind, thus they did not respond to the Syrian petition on the matter. This led to unrest and strikes. To make a long story short, the treaty was reviewed, however, the French parliament never ratified it (Mandel, p. 39).
 

Earlier in the paper I have briefly introduced the French and British politics in the Middle East. In order to conclude the paper I would like to present the main difference between the French and British mandate in respect to the Arab world. According to the mandate of the French, the communities living on the acquired territories had to be recognized as independent nations (Dominus, pp 93-94). On the other hand, in the British mandate there was no recognition given to the Arab community living there. In reality they were only promised local autonomy “so far as circumstances permit” (Mouchy, p. 745)6.

Essay on "Magician" by Gary Miranda

Commentary on Unseen poem: "Magician" By Gary Miranda

From the very beginning of the poem, through its very suggestive title, the reader is introduced to the special world of magicians, magic, magic tricks, which as we see from the start, does not, or more precisely, cannot exist without the audience who makes the “sleight” possible. The poem kidnaps the reader into experiencing a magic trick. In the first stanza the poet tells us “now you see it”, which marks the beginning of the trick which follows. The poem ends with the sentence “now you don’t”, letting the reader know that it worked, the illusion was successfully created, and that the most important participant in the process is not the magician himself, but the audience who allow the magic to happen. The poem has four stanzas.  In the first stanza the magician speaks to his audience revealing a secret, making the setting even more mysterious by doing so. He says that actually practicing for a magician is not that important as the willingness of the audience to be involved.

According to the magician, the easiest way the audience can actually contribute to the magic is through its desire to be tricked. The second stanza attempts to reveal a little more of the magician`s secret of success. The magician misdirects the audience towards noticing his left hand.  He tells the audience that he “counts on their mistake to care”. The trick is made possible through the willingness of the audience to actually obey and play the magician`s game, not wondering what might be in the magician`s other hand. The poet uses a memorable simile, “your undoing blooms like cancer”, to show that the audience`s failure to notice the secret behind the trick is in the same time the only way the trick can succeed. The poem advances toward its third stanza which reveals another astonishing secret: “most tricks are done before you think they`ve started”. The audience allows the tricks to happen through their willingness to believe in magic. They allow the magician to mislead them. They become successful at being tricked and therefore get exactly what they went for. The audience also receives another treat for their participation: the opportunity to become children again and actually believe in the power of magic. Hence, the magicians are able to use the vulnerability of human beings. The magician points out the fact that the audience values space more than time. This suggests that the secret behind the success of the trick is actually a weakness the audience has. Here is where the magic begins. The balls, the cards, the coins don`t physically disappear in a pocket or a sleeve, at the time the audience assumes that. The objects by then are long gone; their presence is history for the magician and a mystery for the audience. In the fourth and final stanza, the magician has one more confession to make. He tells his audience that whatever he gives them is not important because what he keeps makes the audience successful at being tricked. The secret is what makes magic so mysterious and attractive. The secret is which makes the audience interested. The usage of the term hinge in this context tries to illustrate the stability and instability of the magical universe. The suspense within the relationship between the magician and his audience, characterized mainly by the success of the audience in allowing itself to be tricked, reminds the reader about a love affair.

Therefore, the poet decides to use the simile “we are like lovers” followed by the question of willingness which actually feeds the suspense both in the world of magic and love. The next sentence attempts to replace the veil around the secrets of magic. The audience is being told that sometimes they are being tricked without willing and that`s the beauty in it all, the uncertainty of what one can find within a world of magic. The poem ends with the sentence “now you don’t”, which brings the audience`s experience to an end. The cycle of the world of this magic trick has been officially and successfully closed. The theme of the poem is revolving around the importance of the relationship between a magician and his audience. The poem also underlines the flaws of humans who through allowing themselves to be tricked manage to travel back to childhood and get closer to a universe which was believed to be long lost, where magic can become reality.

The tone of the poem can be characterized by seriousness and refinement. The rhythm, as well as the rhyme is irregular.  The sentences are rather short and easy to read. The words chosen by the poet are most often concrete, modern and slightly formal.   

Research Paper on Food

Food Research Paper
It is largely unlikely that any other topic has more far-reaching implications than food. This is because even equally critical prerequisites for human life such as air and soil are neither as capital- or labor-intensive, nor sensitive to acts of men and nature as our contemporary food chain. There is, however, an enormous discrepancy between the significance of food-related issues and the extent to which they covered by mainstream media. 
 

The September 11th 2006 issue of The Nation is a rare exception to this rule. The issue covers a wide spectrum of discussions revolving the economics, politics, technology and culture that surround our food system. This essay focuses on one of these issues, namely the influence of agriculture policy-making on urban life.
 

“Agriculture,” said the founder of a local farmers’ market to Habiba Alcindor, “is just what it says, it has a lot of culture in it” (37). This observation cannot be overestimated; the underlying culture of production, distribution and consumption of foodstuff can be examined from a plentiful of aspects. 

Alcindor, for example, finds considerable racial disparities in farming, including what she finds as entry barriers that prevent black farmers from trading their crops, which have caused a subsequent decline in the proportion of black farmers. She maintains that alternative distribution channels, in particular organic farming markets, do not only help to counterbalance the situation, but also reposition black farmers as “the building blocks for a new inner-city economy” (37). Farmers’ markets and organic farming have several other important implications for urban dwellers. Waters discuses several noteworthy points to consider:
 

First, the allocation of a greater proportion of households’ food expenditure to wholesome raw materials instead on processed food changes the way people treat eating altogether. Buying fruits, vegetables and meat that require extra work before consumption may lead to longer meals and improvements in the social and family life surrounding them.
 

Second, better awareness to the way food is produced helps to strengthen the ties between urban society and the society that feeds it – namely the farming workforce and its economic environment. This may mean a reluctance of urban voters to allow government subsidies to certain types of crops (such as corn), as well as the current tolerance towards unfair treatment of workers in the agricultural sector.
 

Third, such trends will inevitably lead to higher food prices. Consumers will have to pay the full price (in terms of dollars and cooking time) of their meals. Waters argues that current consumers tend to avoid this obligation at the moment, although it is possible that the net price of better food is lower than processed alternatives (13).
 

The fluctuations in food prices observed in the past several years teach us quite a few important lessons. A simple but nonetheless important message is that agricultural economies are rather sensitive and thus malleable enough to allow for some dramatic changes in it, as the issue’s editorial proposes (5). People who are usually unaware to the forces that underlie our food chain might be willing to consider an array of reforms and show a growing public pressure in this direction.      

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Weight and Health Paper

Traditionally, weight and health were considered to be two interdependent notions since any problems with weight naturally resulted in serious health problems. It should be said that people noticed such interdependence quite a long time ago but this idea was scientifically proved only in the last decades when the real impact of weight problems on health were revealed and scientifically analyzed (Paeratakul 178). At the same time, it is necessary to underline that the major problem of the modern society is the problem of overweight leading to obesity and correlated health problems.
 

In fact, I believed that weight and health were really interdependent but I was practically convinced that obesity is the major problem that can threaten to our health because of the changes of our weigth. Nevertheless, a friend of mine, who was a professional nutritionist, warned me that there was another side of the medal, which was often hidden from us because it was and still is quite rare in well developed countries, at least, compared to the problem of obesity. He told me that the nutrition of contemporary people had changed dramatically within the last few decades that inevitably affected their health. He underlined that along with the problem of obesity, one the major challenges of the modern American society, there is still a problem of insufficient and malnutrition, especially in developing countries that lead to numerous health problems of many people to the extent that thousands and even millions of people are starving. The lack of good nutrition results in the wrong development or, to put it more precisely, underdevelopment of human bodies, numerous illnesses caused by malnutrition, especially those related to digestion (Colburn 77).
 

As for the problem of overweight, this problem is not less serious and nowadays it really threatens to the US since it becomes a real epidemic (Duenwald 69). In fact, the problem of obesity considerably affects human health because it provokes a bunch of diseases, including the higher risk of cardio-vascular diseases, which are actually the most widely spread diseases leading to the fatal outcomes (Duenwald 72). At the same time the problem of obesity is provoked only partially by the wrong nutrition as my friend said. In fact, nowadays, we do not really know what we eat. The development of new technologies and chemical industry along with the development of biotechnologies made our food quite different from what human beings get used to receive from nature in the past. As a result, consumption of products containing fats and low consumption of vitamins contributes to the deficit of essential elements and vitamins in human body that negatively affects not only our weight that grows considerably but our health as well.
 

On the other hand, our lifestyle has also changed dramatically. The majority of people lead a sedative lifestyle that contribute to the growth of weight and deterioration of health (Paeratakul 188). It should be pointed out that the lack of physical activities increases not only weight but also the risk of numerous diseases, including cardio-vascular and obesity only makes this risk even higher.

In such a situation, it is really important to pay more attention to our weight as an indicator and one of the determining factors influencing our health. It is not a secret that the US has already launched the struggle with obesity and the cult of healthy body is growing widely spread in the US. However, it is necessary to underline that any efforts of a state, health care organizations, and other institutions will hardly have any effect as long as our lifestyle and our choice of food remain unchanged. In this respect, it should be said that basically the problems of weight in the US are provoked by the sedative lifestyle and consumption of unhealthy food, the food Americans get used to eat in fast food restaurants, for instance (Paeratakul 199). As a result, more and more people suffer from obesity and overweight that deteriorate their health.
 

Consequently, it is necessary to solve these two problems in order to improve our health and make our weight closer to the norm. To put it more precisely, it is necessary to lead a more active lifestyle, which include some regular physical exercises, sport, etc. Also, it is necessary to pay a particular attention to the food we consume daily. In this respect, Americans have little choice and the food that could be labeled as healthy is really few because basically the healthy food is produced by organic farming, which is underdeveloped in the US at the present moment (Griscom 144). As a result, people have to consume food that contains elements that may be potentially dangerous to our health or contribute to the growth of weight that actually also dangerous to our health. This is why it is necessary to solve the problem of the provision of Americans with safe and healthy food in order to solve the problem of overweight and correlated health problems.

Research Paper on Pornography

Should Pornography Be Banned?

1. Introduction

The porn industry has been around for ages and has evolved over the years into a phenomenon that generates billions of dollars every year. Nowadays you can find it on the Internet, in books, in magazines, and on TV. Recently, it has become evident that access to pornography is by no means limited, except for legally, to minors.

Fulfilling a sexual fantasy can take someone to a place of ecstasy. Not fulfilling a sexual fantasy can leave them frustrated and irritated. Coming close to fulfilling it can make them momentarily happy, which is where pornography does its job.

The fact is that a lot of people do a lot of things for sex. Consciously or subconsciously, the urge to procreate as human beings is something that is undeniable. Sigmund Freud is considered to be the founder of psychoanalysis and his theories involve the process of relating many human emotions, actions, and reactions to the primal impulses associated with sex. Although many criticize his theories as incomplete and closed-minded, his research has greatly contributed to mankind’s understanding sexual aggression, love, and many different complexes. These complexes are often transformed into multi-media, and more specifically pornography. Controversial fantasies such as rape, pedophilia, and incest are often the subject of pornographic material and can sometimes lead to the dangerous activity of an emotionally unstable individual and the endangerment of an undeserving victim. On the other hand, a lot of people who have not become serial killers regularly enjoy pornography, individually or as a group, and proceed to live a comfortable family life.

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the pros and cons of pornography in a debate that would contribute to the hypothetical porn equivalent of the prohibition. It is of fundamental importance to acknowledge both the positive and the negative effects that pornography has on its users in order to realize the overall negative impact that this industry contributes.

2. The Positive Effects of Pornography

2.1. The Benefits of Pornography

There are many advocates of pornography, and the arguments they impose certainly have some rationale behind them. The world would be a very different place if pornography was banned and the change would not necessarily be for the better. Furthermore, it is an industry, which has boosted many economies and generates a lot of economic activity all over the world. There are many instances where pornography can help an individual or a couple. Many opinions state that there are no discernable effects of pornography and that that it actually has beneficial effects in terms of fantasy, sex education, and artistic expression (Malamuth and Billings, 1986, 85). For instance, consider a family of four. Included is a married couple and two children, a teenage boy and a teenage girl. In a hypothetical case, we can understand the positive effects pornography can have on each member of the family.

2.2. A Real Life Example

Let us consider the mother and the father. Naturally, after 15 years of marriage, the husband’s sex-drive has lowered considerably meanwhile the wife’s has risen. Unfortunately, neither looks the same as they did when they were newlyweds, especially the wife after having two children. This couple, which is in a monogamous relationship, may explore the option of viewing pornography together as a stimulant. They may find something very interesting for themselves, something that stimulates creativity in the bedroom that they never developed earlier, due to a lack of need. If the couples’ marriage were to crumble due to infidelity or a lack of romance stemming from disinterest and boredom, the children would suffer from a lot of turmoil that could have been otherwise avoided.

The children are affected in another way. The boy has had mixed sexual feelings and repressed his sexual identity for most of his life. He has a feeling that he might be gay but he is too shy to tell anyone, especially his old-fashioned father. The girl is going through puberty and is very curious and artistic by nature. Both children explore their feelings via pornography and satisfy their urges and understanding of sex. They realize that they are not ready yet to explore sex on their own but treat a suppressed need for sexual expression through pornography. Considering that they are enrolled in a private school with a religious curriculum, which does not support extensive sex education, this is a huge positive for the children. Otherwise the boy and the girl may have made themselves susceptible to the dangers that coincide with unprotected sex. By banning pornography, the consensus neglects to understand that it is merely a result of the fact that men and women are sexual beings (Malamuth and Billings, 1986, 85).

3. The Negative Effects of Pornography

3.1. Pornography and Sexual Aggression

A common criticism of pornography is that exposure can lead to increased sexual aggression in the viewers. In a report which explores the positive effects of experimenting with pornography, the research conducted suggests that sexual violence in pornography can create many anti-social effects, such as increased acceptance of rape myths, increased acceptance of violence against women and decreased perceptions of the suffering of a rape victim (Check and Malamuth, 1984, 15). Furthermore, a more recent study of 16 experiments which involved subject’s examination of violent and non violent pornography concluded that after exposure to the pornographic material, attitudes supporting sexual aggression increased (Malamuth et al., 2000, 44). Coupled with the idea that aggression towards women can have positive consequences (Malamuth and Ceniti), this can lead to some dangerous situations.

3.2. The Case of Ted Bundy

In the case of Ted Bundy, an infamous serial killer who murdered and raped many women and was executed for it, sex and more specifically pornography changed his life for the worse. In his final interview with James Dobson, Bundy told a story of how a little boy who was fascinated with pornography turned into the man that he was. His first exposure to pornography was when he was a minor, at the age of 13. The fascination and aggression he displayed was gradually brought forth from fantasy to reality. Although this is an extreme case, Bundy’s claim was that every criminal that he came in contact with while incarcerated shared a similar history and involvement with pornography (Dobson). For Bundy, along with many others, the addiction to immediate sexual gratification along with desensitization leads to acting out sexually in a violent way.

3.3. Considering the Youth

This brings us to a point that was explored by the Children’s Digital Media Center and Department of Psychology at the University of California. As mentioned earlier, access to pornography is by no means limited to adults. In a literary review, findings showed that there are many cases of children being inadvertently exposed to pornography through the use of peer-to-peer file-sharing networks. This exposure can influence sexual violence, moral values, and sexual activity of minors (Greenfield, 2004, 741). Misinformation gathered via this exposure can further harm children who already suffer from antisocial behavior.

When asked about these experiences, many of the subjects mentioned feelings of disgust (24.5%), shock/ surprise (23.6%) and embarrassment (21.4%) (Greenfield, 2004, 744). These are feelings that should never be associated with sex. Since the minors are not well educated on the matter, this can create lasting complexes. A boy can feel like he is inadequate while a girl can feel like it is okay to be mistreated, or vice versa depending on the type of pornography. Because the exposure is inadvertent and unintentional, many parents are unaware or unable to communicate about this issue. Furthermore, many children are not privileged enough to have the warm parent-child relationship needed in order to discuss the things they see.

4. Conclusion

Although there are certain ways to present pornography that would cause minimal harm to its viewers, the overall effect of pornography on our society is negative. For those who argue that pornography stimulates sexual expression, the fact is that pornography desensitizes the viewer until the point where only abnormal sexual activity is perceived as gratifying. For a couple that is having trouble being romantically involved with each other, there are many options that do not involve pornography, such as marriage counseling. The argument that pornography serves as a reasonable tool for sex education is preposterous, unless you would like your child to learn about rape and unprotected group-sex as opposed to STDs and pregnancy prevention. The problem with treating pornography as a form of artistic expression lies within the fact that most pornography is made for profit and not artistic expression. The sheer volume of material that is targeted to one target group but received by others is unparalleled by any other industry. The dangers of addiction, especially for minors, are too important to overlook. Just as propaganda that slanders certain religions, races, and people is cast away, so should the pornographic propaganda that teaches sexual aggression towards women is fine and that men and women are suppose to look a specific way to be considered beautiful. Until a substantial and effective method of censorship of content and distribution of pornography is established, its production and distribution must halt.

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Knowledge Assessment Essay

Knowledge Assessment
A growing body of literature indicates that preschool children experience a critical period in the course of their mental, cognitive and intellectual development. It follows that all stakeholders – principally authorities, parents and caregivers – should promote a safe, nurturing and respectful environment, which facilitates optimal conditions for the development of the young brain. Abundant evidence shows that this kind of environment, whose nature is comprehensively defined by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) under the term high quality child care, brings about tremendous improvements in terms of child development and future achievements. This paper reviews findings on short- and long-term benefits of high quality child care (in terms of e.g. cognitive stimulation, warmth and caregivers’ education) in several major domains.
 

First, the extent to which caregivers provide opportunities for physical activities, exploration of the surroundings and age-adjusted kinetic skills predicts child performance along the development milestones. The same holds true for the propensity for obesity, which declines in high quality environments (Lawlis, Mikhailovich, & Morrison, 2008). An additional benefit that promotes physical growth and well-being is the lower prevalence of childhood diseases among children who attend high quality care (NICHD, 2006).
 

In their multisite longitudinal study, Peisner-Feinberg et al. (2000) reviewed a large cohort from an earlier study (West, Wright, & Hausken, 1995). Focusing on cognitive, social and emotional development, the former study’s findings include, among others:
 

First, high quality child care was found to affect readiness to school and significantly decreased the effect of socioeconomic gaps. This holds true for cognitive measures such as math and language, as well as social conduct. Abnormal social behavior also seems to be less prevalent among well-cared cohorts.
 

Second, these effects continue to have long-term implications. That is, children who benefited from quality care during their preschool years show superior school performance. The authors define high quality care as predictor of school performance and indicate that children’s superior performance allowed them to gain higher benefits from the didactic and social opportunities in their schools. 
 

Third, high quality care compensates for traditional risk factors at childhood. This is especially true for children of poor educated mothers, who are considered as risk group for poor school performance. In fact, these populations showed the highest rate of improvement in both short-term and long-term measurements of numerous factors.
 

Finally, the quality of the teaching staff and the degree to which teachers and caregivers had closer relationships with the children were strongly correlated with the children’s behavioral development and academic achievements. Typical areas of superior performance included language, math, thinking and attention skills, sociability, problematic behavioral patterns and peer relations.
 

It is hard to overestimate the extent to which child care influences children’s development an through which their future. All the studies discusses in this short paper make a strong point that these interventions are not only indispensable to promote school and preschool performance, but also are extremely cost effective. This holds true especially for children at risk, for children of poorly educated parents, and for socioeconomically deprived toddlers and preschool children.       

American History Timeline Essay

1. Native Americans prior to European Colonization- The Native American people were known as hunters-gatherers. They practiced agriculture and aquaculture, used farms, and managed to sustain cities with their own architecture. There is much argument with regards to the size of the population at this time, with estimates ranging from 1 to 18 million people.

2. The Effects of British Colonization on the Native American People- In 1775, the British Empire consisted of 20 territories in North America.  Thirteen of these colonies are now known as the United States. Up until 1810, an estimated 400 thousand black slaves were exchanged for guns, gun powder and rum. Poor Europeans also served as slaves during the establishment of the British Thirteen Colonies. Between 1492- 1612, the majority of the indigenous population of America (Native Americans) had been due to epidemic diseases brought over by the European and Asian communities. With little freedom, the Native Peoples resorted to suicide and abortion as a form of self-protection.

3. Protestant Christianity and Colonial Social Life- The 18th century saw many changes in the way Christians acted amongst themselves, and their involvement in religious affairs. Events such as the Great Awakening, the American Revolution, and the debates surrounding the Church and the State were the cause of separation and denomination among the sects of religion in the early 19th century. The secularized society of the time challenged Christian orthodoxy and liberal Christianity became prominent among the people.

4. The Seven Years’ War-1756-1763- The war resulted in almost 1.5 million deaths to the participants’ nations, which included Prussia, Great Britain, Portugal, Spain, Germany, Austria, France, Russia, Sweden and Saxony. Although the war had officially begun in 1756, two years prior, the American and Canadian colonies had began battle with each other. The final battle in North America saw the French submit the rights to eastern North America to the British, in turn giving control to the prized fur trade of the subjected territories.

5. God Given Freedom of the Individual- The Protestant Reformation, beginning in 1517, resulted in a huge amount of innocent bloodshed. But it left a legacy which gave the right for a prince to choose the religion of the state. The effects of the scientific revolution (17th Century) brought the American Enlightenment, which took reasoning and applied it to religion. Coupled with the Great Awakening and the Declaration of Independence, these events resulted in the American people living with the freedom to choose his or her own path in life.

6. The Evolution of the Socio-political and Cultural Milieu- This evolution saw a lot of contributors and contributions. Much of it can be understood by analyzing the events surrounding the formation of the Declaration of Independence, the formation of the Constitution and the its amendments, including the Bill of Rights.

a. Declaration of Independence- On July 4th, 1776, the 13 United States of America had declared their independence from the British rule and King George III of Great Britain. The declaration of rights included the right to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness. The person most responsible for the declaration is Thomas Jefferson, who paved the way for individual human rights in America. 

b. Constitution- 1787-1788- The constitution serves as a replacement for the Articles of Confederation, which was used as an advisor to the national government and its operations. The constitution divided the national government into three branches: legislative, executive, and judiciary, a means to the end of preventing tyranny.

Bill of Rights- 1789-1791- This document serves as a list of amendments to the constitution, with the purpose of limiting the governments influences on personal freedoms. In 1789 James Madison made the first amendments. The document was ratified in 1791.

7. George Washington- 1789-1797- This was the term of the first president of the United States. Vice president, John Adams succeeded George Washington as presdient. He pioneered the concept of a cabinet system and the delivery of inagurual address. He is known as the father of the Us, a contributor to the US constitution, and a leader who created a government that was accepted by Americans all over the country. His leadership, strong-will, military experience, and self-sacrifice served as a model for presidents who came after and for the citizens of the country from that point onwards.

8. The Evolution of Jeffersonian Democracy- 1800-1820- Named after the 3rd president of the US, the name refers to a philosophy that empowers republicanism against British imperialism. The development of Jeffersonian democracy was based on the ideal that the citizens of the US had the power to prevent the corruption of government. The group of Jeffersonians, which included James Madison, Nathaniel Bacon, Albert Gallatin, and John Randolph, preached freedom of speech, a separation between church and state, civic duty, and the right to be informed, in the name of the American citizen. 

a. Louisiana Purchase- 1803- This event refers to the purchase of over 800 square miles of land, known as the territory of Louisiana, from France. The U.S. paid $217 USD in today’s currency for a piece of land that was double the size of the United States. The acquisition was received with criticism, as it seemed to oppose the Jeffersonian philosophy. Simultaneously, it created an opportunity for a power shift for the United States over England. Thomas Jefferson’s main motivation for acquiring the land was to maintain access and control over New Orleans, which possessed the most utilized port for import and export goods in the United States.

b. The Second Great Awakening- 1790- 1840- This was a great religious movement which caused new reform denominations of Christian people to be realized. The religious upheaval had positively important effects on people, which included a change to the attitudes of the middle class people via a promotion of strong work ethic, temperance, and ridding the people of suffering and injustice. Slaves and slaveholders were included together in participation of conversions and speeches. 

c. The Embargo Act- 1807-1809- Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, in order to prevent war and protect American interests, imposed The Embargo Act. The act restricted Americans from participating in foreign trade during a French-British conflict over European control. The idea was to influence the French and the British using economic means rather than war, and put an end to their conflict. The act failed due to loopholes, created a financial imbalance for the U.S., and the U.S. was forced into war that same summer. 

d. Issues with the Courts- Thomas Jefferson and the Jeffersonians confronted Federalist judges and courts. While many Jeffersonians wanted to abolish the federal judiciary system, Jefferson did not. He did however combat the attempts to increase the power of national courts. In a very controversial sequence of events, several judges impeached and convicted.

9.  The War of 1812- 1812-1815- The U.S. had declared war against the British Empire. Reasons included trade restrictions and “the press” of Americans into the Royal Navy. The war between the Americans and the British involved the invasion of Upper and Lower Canada, via sea, warships and privateers. Neither of the participants won ground on each other and the relationship between Britain and the U.S. got better. Many parts of British North America were demilitarized, British impressments ceased, and in the Treaty of 1818, border negotiations were made. 

10. The Monroe Doctrine- 1823- First stated by James Munroe, the doctrine addressed an issue that was a concern to Great Britain and Spain, as well as the U.S. Its goal was to ensure that no European power would attempt to further colonize any parts of the U.S., deeming this effort as an act of aggression. The doctrine was unexpectedly successful and had a lasting effect for nations seeking independence over the next two centuries.

11. The Evolution of Jacksonian Democracy- 1828-1850- Contrary to Jeffersonian Democracy, president Andrew Jackson preached power to the executive branch of the government while minimizing Congress. Among Jackson’s more notable actions (and non-actions) was the inclusion of all white males into the people entitled to vote, the avoidance of controversy regarding slavery, and the rewriting multiple state constitutions. 

a. The Nullification Crisis- 1832- South Carolina’s Ordinance of Nullification was the catalyst for this crisis. The ordinance challenged the federal tariffs of 1828 and 1832, which forces southerners to pay higher prices on goods they did not produce, in order to protect the northerners. The end result saw reductions in tariff rates, which satisfied the opposition in the South.

b. The Bank Crisis- 1832-1833- Andrew Jackson held a strong opposition to the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson declared that the bank needed to be overruled and eradicated because it concentrated the nation’s wealth into one institution, it exposed government to the threat of control by foreign powers, made the rich richer and the poor poorer, favored states geographically, and held too much power over Congress. Jackson was successful as he withdrew U.S. funds and redistributed it among other banks, land sales, cotton production, as well as other areas.

c. The Trail of Tears- 1831-1837- Catalyzed by the relocation of the Choctaw Nation to Cherokee in 1831, the Trail of Tears refers to the forced removal of tens of thousands of Native Americans from southeastern states, freeing 25 million acres of land.

d. The Manifest Destiny- 1845- John O’Sullivan coined this term while discussing expansion plans of the James Polk administration. The Manifest Destiny refers to the belief that the U.S. should expand across the whole continent of North America, and was even used as an excuse for the upcoming Mexican-American war. The idea was not well received, especially by those who would have rather focused on strengthening the economy instead of expanding territory.

e. The Causes and Effects of the Mexican War- 1846-1848- This war was a result of a miscommunication between the two countries, in regards to the annexation of Texas. Mexico, despite the Texas Revolution of 1836, saw Texas as part of its territory. American military invaded and overpowered Mexican territory, forcefully exchanging $15 million for the territories of California and New Mexico.

Essay on University Education in English

Today, English is a vehicle language. In fact, English is the language of the international communication and people use this language worldwide, even though for many of them English is not their native language. At the same time, English is the main language with the help of which people can gain success on the international level. Obviously, the language competence opens huge career opportunities for people worldwide since, today, the knowledge of English language may be a key to the professional success, especially for those people who are employed in multinational corporations. In such a context, the number of foreign students, who choose to study overseas, is constantly growing because, along with the higher education and qualification they get English language competence that means that they can work on the international level. However, the growing number of foreign students at Universities of English-speaking countries, such as Australia, raises a serious problem. On the one hand, the involvement of foreign students is beneficial for Universities from financial, marketing and academic points of view, while, on the other hand, the question concerning the quality of education naturally arises.

First of all, it is important to underline that Universities often stimulate foreign students to enter. In this respect, numerous programs and scholarships allow foreign students to enter Universities and continue their studies in English-speaking countries, such as Australia. At this point, it is worth mentioning the fact that often such programs and scholarships do not bring any direct financial benefits to Universities. Nevertheless, Universities are interested in the involvement of the larger number of foreign students.

In such a context, it is necessary to take into consideration two factors which are beneficial for Universities. Firstly, the growing number of foreign students improves the brand image of Universities. In other words, the more foreign students a University is able to attract the more prestigious the education at this University becomes since foreign students, who are about to choose a University to study at, prefer Universities where the number of foreign students is high because these Universities have well-developed language programs and courses which can facilitate the studies of foreign students. In addition, students believe that these Universities can provide the education of the higher quality, though, in actuality, the involvement of foreign students is a pure marketing strategy of many Universities in English-speaking countries. It is not a secret that the competition between Universities of English-speaking countries, especially the UK, the US and Australia, grows dramatically and the more foreign students Universities are able to attract the better will be their competitive position in the educational market, which, similarly to other markets, tends to globalization (Baez, 102).

Secondly, Universities get an excellent opportunity to involve most prospective students who have huge academic potential, which they cannot realize in their native countries. In such a way, the process of brain-drain occurs and Universities of Australia and other English-speaking countries are desirable destinations for many students from countries of the third-world (Blimling, 518). At this point, it is important to underline the fact that it is high standards of education in such countries as Australia that attracts foreign students that means that the quality of education is crucial for students and, therefore, for Universities which development is impossible without students.

At the same time, the growing number of foreign students brings considerable financial profits to Universities which often suffer from the lack of the state support. At any rate, foreign students paying for the education provide stable and substantial revenues for Universities in English-speaking countries, such as Australia (Yagelsh, 204). Obviously, it is mainly due to the language and its spread worldwide foreign students prefer English speaking countries. For instance, many European universities in such countries as Switzerland, Germany, France, have high standards of education and the quality of education is not much worse or better in Europe than in Australia, but students prefer Australia, as well as the UK or the USA, because these countries are English-speaking. Therefore, Universities in Australia and other English-speaking countries can use language as an additional attraction for foreign students. The latter are ready to pay more for their education than they would normally do in non-English-speaking countries, such as Germany, for instance. In such a way, Australian Universities can benefit financially from foreign students.

However, the huge involvement of foreign students is inevitably accompanied by the risk of the decreasing quality of education in Australian Universities. It proves beyond a doubt that the quality of education of foreign students, especially if they arrive from countries of the third world, is consistently lower compared to the level of education of Australian students. In fact, Australian system of school education has larger opportunities than educational systems of developing countries which suffer permanently from poor financing and low professional level of educators.

In such a situation, Australian Universities need to focus on the quality of education that means that they should control thoroughly the educational level of students entering the Universities since their educational level should meet high standards of Australian Universities. At the same time, Universities often to spend time and financial resources to organize and introduce special educational programs or courses for foreign students to allow them to catch up with Australian students. This refers not only to the language competence but also to the general educational level of foreign students. Consequently, the drawback of the wide involvement of foreign students is the necessity of additional financial expenses and development of specific educational programs in order to maintain the high quality of education of Universities.

Nevertheless, from the financial point of view, the benefits, Australian and other English-speaking universities receive from foreign students, outweigh costs. This is why the trend to increase the number of foreign students at Australian universities still persists and it is likely to continue growing in the nearest future since the competition between English-speaking Universities of Australia, the UK and the US tends to increase. In such a situation, it is important for Universities to maintain high standards of education in their pursuit of benefits, both financial and intellectual.

Sustainable Society Essay

Within the international scientific community there is almost an international consensus that the ecological limits of the earth are being exceeded in many areas.

The need for "sustainable development", based on notions of inter and intra-generational equity has been widely espoused by Governments the world over. However, the situation remains in which approximately 20% of the world's population accounts for 80% of total annual resource consumption. The rate of consumption of natural resources (both renewable and non-renewable) continues to increase and the gap between rich and poor continues to widen. Massive biodiversity loss continues unabated. Economic and political power is becoming increasingly centralized and unaccountable.

The high profile "Sustainable Europe" project was the culmination of a 5 year Sustainable Societies Program. At the core of this project was the concept of "Fair Shares in Environmental Space". Environmental Space is effectively a way of measuring sustainability in terms of resource use (energy, non-renewable resources, agricultural land and forests). The notion of "fair shares" introduces the principle of equity in access to environmental space (which is limited by the carrying capacity of the earth) between countries.

There is much consensus amongst FoE groups around the world that contemporary local and global environmental problems and social inequalities are strongly connected to the massive over-consumption of resources in the North, and that the North may need to reduce consumption levels by up to 90% if we are to move towards the establishment of sustainable and equitable societies.

When addressing the issue of sustainability, Western European countries are typically in the situation of having, among otherthings, high per capita consumption rates, relatively high population density, a relatively poor natural resource base (already expended) and few if any "wilderness" areas to protect from industrial development. The material intensity of these economies relies on a massive flow of resources from poorer "Southern" countries. In this context, it has made sense for the sustainability work of Western European FoE groups to focus on reducing resource consumption.

Essay on School Days

I enjoyed School Days because I felt there was a very natural progression throughout the novel. Patrick Chamoiseau, the author, is very consistent in his thought process and this allows readers to become part of the journey of his childhood education. The language is playful and appropriate to the child narrator. I found this novel to share many fundamental characteristics to Richard Rodriguez's Hunger of Memory: The Education of Richard Rodriguez. Ultimately, I found that School Days was the more effective of the two novels because it left a margin of possibilities that Rodriguez's book did not have. In this essay I will explain what I find to be the fundamental characteristics that the two novels share, and I will explore what I feel is the major difference between the two authors' educational background and how that has affected their writing.

The two authors chose to explore a variety of similar themes such as: what happens when children become educated outside the home, what happens when children are educated outside of their native languages, the quandary that children find themselves in between their native language that represents home life and a new language in their quests to fit in at school. This last case is where they slightly differ. Although both young Richard and young Patrick (whom we will call the unnamed character in School Days) choose to keep their confusion, hurt, shame, and anxiety regarding school to themselves, their reasoning is slightly different. Rodriguez could feel himself exceeding his parents' educational level and did not want to flaunt things that they did not understand around the house. Patrick did not want his mother to know that he was not doing well in school. He did not want his mother to be upset with him, knowing how highly she thinks of education and school,"He kept his failures secret, along with the scoldings and the wallops, because Mam Ninotte seemed to confer supreme authority upon the school." (Chamoiseau, p.74).

The difference in the two writings is that Rodriguez makes it seem as if every bilingual child goes through exactly what he went through. Chamoiseau, on the other hand, tells his story and indirectly shares with his readers an alternative experience. In the case of an irate mother who comes to the school in her child's defense of a wrong she felt was committed to him/her by one of the teachers, "There too, a mama furious with some Teacher would come, loudly demanding an explanation" (Chamoiseau, p.88).

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Of Mice and Men essay

The novel Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck is a short novel made up of six parts and its setting is California of the United States in the 1930s, a time of the Great Depression. The action of the whole story takes place within several days and it is focused on a farmhouse by the side of the Salina River in California. The story is about the experience of two working hands, Lennie and George, in a bunkhouse. These two men earn their living in the ranch as labours and they have their devotion to working just because they share their common dream of owning a farm together in their future. It is a pity that Lennie's killing of Curley's wife breaks their dream and forces George to kill Lennie with his own hand. The novel is a social novel describing the hard life of the Americans in the west in the 1930s. Throughout the story, the author would like to bring out his most explicit theme that we human beings exist and make efforts in life just because we have a dream for our future and once the dream breaks, we lose all our inertia for work.

Of the few characters in the novel, the two most important ones are George and Lennie. It is difficult to identify which one is the protagonist since the two play an equal part in the development of the plot. Lennie has to depend on the intelligent advice from George while George has to rely on the gigantic strength of Lennie. They are so interdependent on each other that they generate an intimate relationship, a relationship that arouses the suspicion of those in the farm. George has a sense of responsibility as he accepts the duty of looking after his retarded partner Lennie. However, Lennie has his own problems, the problem of petting soft things and having no brains. (I should say that) They are both character foils to each other. Physically, George is small and skinny while Lennie is "strong as a horse" and "as big as a bear". George, as the author describes, is a small fellow with a "small and quick, dark" and bony nose." He describes Lennie as a "huge man, shapeless" His arms did not swing at his sides, but hung loosely." Mentally, George is smart while Lennie has a child's mind. George makes the decision for both and has promised Aunt Clara to look after Lennie.

Both characters are static characters as they learn nothing from their experience in the story. I learn much about the two characters through indirect presentation since the author puts a lot of conversations in the novel. In my opinion, the characters of Lennie and George are a little bit exaggerated because it is difficult to find such a pair in real life. At least, there is no such sincerity existing between two persons today. What we find today are characters who can only share mutual benefits in a practical world. As long as a person's value of being manipulated does not exist, co-operation or friendship evaporates. In the story, there are other minor characters such as the boss' son Curley and his wife and the ranch helpers like the old man Candy and Crooks.

The conflicts of man versus man are common in the story. Curley is jealous of the strong and muscular Lennie. The critical conflict comes with Lennie grabbing Curley's fist and crushing the latter's hand. The coincidence of killing Candy's old dog from behind foreshadows the killing of Lennie by George from behind. The loneliness of Curley's wife encourages her to come into close contact with Lennie, thus meeting her death. George's advice to Lennie on hiding near the Salina River foreshadows Lennie's hiding after he has killed Curley's wife. These coincidences , when weaved together, give the story a sense of coherence and smooth plot development. The author's purposes in writing the novel are twofold. First , he wants to reveal that human beings need mutual trust and companionship. Secondly, human beings need a dream to survive.

Curley and his wife lack companionship because they do not trust each other. On the other hand, the author shows that mutual trust and communication enable George and Lennie to take care of each other. In order to survive, George and Lennie are given the hope of owning a farm of their own by the author. Such a dream allows the two to work hard in the ranch and support their life spiritually. On the other hand, Curley's wife loses her dream of being a Hollywood star after her marriage, thus making her life empty and meaningless.

The novel is mainly told in the form of a dialogue and I look upon it as a play-novel. However, there are some instances when the writer enters the mind of all the characters and see through their thoughts and actions. Thus (I may also say that) the novel is written in the omniscient point of view. The author has the ability to pay attention in describing details. I do appreciate his detailed description of the bunk house and the surroundings in the Salina River. "The bunk house was a long, rectangular building. Inside, the walls were whitewashed and the floor unpainted. In three walls there were small, square windows, and in the fourth, a solid door with a wooden latch." (19) He is also able to pour emotions into the dialogue from which the readers can feel the inner feelings of the characters. "Let's have different color rabbits, George." "Sure we will," George said sleepily. "Red and blue and green rabbits, Lennie. Millions of 'em."(17) The conversation reveals Lennie's wishes and George's impatience and sleepiness. In using the lot of informal grammar and content , the author deliberately tries to make the readers feel that we are enjoying the conversations of the lower-class people in the 1930s.

I like the novel because I learn much from reading it. Apart from understanding the background of Steinbeck's time in the 1930s, I also know that the stronger ones are not always clever while the physically weaker ones may be those who manipulate others through their intelligence. I also find that loneliness is a horrible thing on Earth and therefore we need companionship and communication. Moreover, we also need a dream to enrich our life and future. Finally, I learn that racial discrimination is wrong because it is unfair to the black people. The novel has a universal appeal although it is set in the 1930s. We accept that we need communication and understanding and a dream for survival. The ending gives me surprises because George not only fails to materialize the dream of owning a farm with Lennie but also has to kill Lennie with his own hand. From another angle, the novel is a tragedy since there are the death of Curley's wife, the killing of Lennie by George and the breaking up of friendship between George and Lennie.

I shower pity on Curley's wife because she is the loneliest character in the novel. Moreover, the killing of Candy's old dog leaves Candy without a companion. I came across another novel called The Grapes of Wrath by the same author some years ago. There is a similar setting like that of Of Mice and Men and it also has a tragic ending when those migrating from the east fail to find a hand-to-mouth living in the west despite the so-called prosperity in the west. Although it is miserable for me to accept the tragic ending in Of Mice and Men, the story successfully leaves a deep impression in my mind. The characters and its themes do stimulate my thinking and give me a new perspective of human relationship and companionship. Seldom do I get a book so worthy of reading. I have got a lot in terms of knowledge, human experience and entertainment through reading the novel. In short, I would give the novel Of Mice and Men a rating of 9 out of 10 when I recommend it to students in Grades 11 and 12.

The Age of Napoleon Essay

Napoleon Bonaparte was a minor Corsican aristocrat who fought his way up to be Emperor of France. He was a dictator that advanced many of the goals of the Revolution. He represented change in the government and social processes. His motto was to be ruled by him or fight against him. He was well-known for his conquests all over Europe.

Some of the battles he fought and won were Marengo in June 1800 in which he defeated Austria, Austerlitz on December 2, 1805 in which he defeated the Russian and Austrian armies, Jena-Auerstadt and Friedland on June 14, 1807 in which he defeated the Russian Army in Poland. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Tilsit by Czar Alexander I in 1807. After this, Napoleon controlled the majority of Europe. By 1811, nearly all of Europe except for the Balkans was included in his Grand Empire.

Napoleon had a large family and he often appointed his brothers and sisters, distant relatives and faithful servants to royal positions in the countries he conquered. All of Napoleon’s takeovers followed the same pattern. At the beginning, his army would take over the area. Then, he would use his influence on the government to draft a new constitution. Then he would appoint a relative as the ruler to make sure the conquest would be loyal to him. His empire followed his orders and his rules. By 1811 his dream of a unified Europe under his rule was becoming a reality.

The reality of his dream soon came to an end when he was finally defeated in April 1814 and was exiled to Elba. Even though he was not an evil ruler, he was forceful when he took over other countries. Great Britain was the major stumbling block in Napoleon’s grand plan of conquering all of Europe and to make it unified. He even fought during his exile to Elba but was eventually defeated one last time.

Napoleon Bonaparte was a fighter from day one, working his way up from French general to Emperor. He fought to the end when he suffered a bloody defeat at Waterloo on June 18, 1815 and was exiled to Saint Helena. He eventually died in 1821 but his memory will haunt the French political life forever.

Global Warming Essay

Imagine a world where the landlocked state of Idaho is now prime oceanfront property and almost all of the major cities in the world are covered by water, a place where the average temperature ten degrees higher, and instead of California, Canada and Siberia now have the prime agricultural climates and tropical diseases are worldwide (Kyoto 13). This isn’t a science fiction movie. It is the predicted worst-case scenario if we continue to pollute the environment with greenhouse gases. Global warming is a serious threat that could threaten the existence of our civilization.

Some suggest that this horrible scenario is impossible and that global warming is all hype and no substance. They blame the global warming frenzy on ulterior political motives, faulty scientific data and a misinformed media. Unfortunately for us, this point of view is wrong and global warming is a serious threat.

Those who argue that it is all political hype say that politicians are making a big deal out of this issue in order to advance their political position. The author of one article dedicated to this viewpoint says, “The VP has been revving up his political engine on high octane global warming hype recently. This is probably the prelude to his expect bid for the White House in the next presidential election. He claims that the signatures of 2,500 scientists from the IPCC and record high temperatures this summer should seal the debate forever.” He and others who agree argue that these actions by the Vice President are based solely on his political agenda and faulty scientific data. They claim that the data Al Gore is using to base his decisions shows an increase in global temperature but isn’t credible because most of the temperatures were taken in urban areas where they can be skewed by the heat conducting properties of concrete and asphalt that are common in urban areas().

This argument does have a point, but there is one inconsistency. Why is Antarctica, a place with no manmade objects, experiencing the warmest years in all of history? There is no denying this fact. Climate records of Antarctica show that in the last half-century temperatures have risen almost 3 degrees Celsius and the ice shelves are disappearing at an alarming rate. “Between 1966 and 1989 most of the Wordie Ice Shelf, 502 square miles, disappeared. And over the past 18 months, two of the peninsula’s largest ice shelves have lost nearly 1,100 square miles of their total area, a sheet of ice about the size of Rhode Island,” says Mary Roach, author of “Antarctica’s Hot Spot”. Nobody can dispute the rising sea levels either, which is an effect of the melting ice.

Another position that many people argue is that the media, who have no hard, cold facts to go by, have blown up the issue of global warming in order to create controversy that will sell more papers and attract more viewers. Unfortunately, the media didn’t just cook this scheme up to make more money, they based it on undeniable scientific evidence. The fact that the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has risen drastically is a phenomenon that isn’t possible to dispute. Before the industrial revolution, amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was 270 parts per million. Today it is almost 360 parts per million due to our emissions from burning fossil fuels. “There is no known geologic precedent for large increases of atmospheric CO2 without simultaneous changes in other components of the carbon cycle and climate system,” states ;dj;lad. This means that throughout the earth’s geological history, there has never been a case where the CO2 level has risen and the climate hasn’t changed. Scientific evidence from core samples proves this. Unfortunately, today, the rise in CO2 hasn’t been natural as in the past, but has been imposed by us humans. The consequences of this unnatural balance could be devastating.

Global warming occurs because we are spewing emission gases into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels. These gases, with carbon dioxide being the main culprit, prevent solar heat from escaping the earth’s atmosphere, resulting in a rise in temperature, or the greenhouse effect. Already scientists around the world are detecting the numerous and dangerous effects of global warming. (Johnson 18).

These effects include rising sea levels, killer heat waves, outbreaks of tropical diseases, altered weather patterns, increased numbers of floods and hurricanes, and affected agricultural harvests (Calvin 49).

The most widely accepted effect from global warming is rising sea levels , which could dramatically transform our planet. Polar sea ice and alpine glaciers have been steadily receding over the last two decades (Wheeler 96). If the huge polar ice caps disgorge their enormous volume of fresh water into the sea, the abrupt rise in the sea level will cover coastal and low-lying lands around the globe. Fifty percent of the world’s major cites are located on the coast, as well as many natural treasures such as the Florida Everglades and the Hawaiian Islands (“What We’ve Learned”). All of these coastal areas would be submerged. The sea has already risen four inches since the turn of the century and it is expected to rise much more abruptly. Earth could possibly become a water world (Kyoto 14).

The effect on the world’s climate from increasing temperatures could be just as devastating. Floods, droughts, heat waves and plagues are all on the rise. The eleven warmest years in history have occurred since 1980. Increasing temperatures will cause much more precipitation in certain parts of the world, leading to many deadly floods (Johnson 22). Conversely, other parts of the globe will see a reduction in rainfall and deserts will relentlessly overtake thousands of square miles of habitable land (Sclener 97). Northern areas such as Europe, Russia, Canada, and the northern United States could have milder winters. This at first glance may seem like a good thing. However the changing climates can allow tropical diseases to move into higher latitudes and affect people and animals that have no immunity to the new viruses. Already deadly rodent viruses are showing up in areas of Africa and the American Southwest that were previously unknown to affect humans (Sclener 23).

As if these changes in sea level and climate are not scary enough, the changes to agriculture around the world could be the most threatening of all. Many third world countries depend on agriculture for their entire export economy as well as the primary source of food for their citizens. Entire countries could lose their agriculture base because of altered climate patterns (Johnson 55). At our current rate of pollution, all of these disasters are expected to take place in as little as fifty years (Calvin 55).

The phenomenon of global warming is an extremely serious matter. Not just hype as many claim. The scientific evidence of increased greenhouse gases, melting ice sheets and rise in sea level are undeniable facts. If we don’t do something to prevent this from increasing, our entire civilization is at risk.

We can stop continued global warming by enticing industries to switch to more energy efficient fuels like natural gas. We can reduce our dependence on fossil fuels by driving more fuel efficient cars, installing solar cells on our roofs, and relying more on wind, solar, hydroelectric, and nuclear power for our electricity. The governments of the world need to look past the perceived economic drawbacks of reducing our use of fossil fuels and realize the enormous economic potential of emerging environmental technology that could prevent global warming (Sclener). Global warming is real and we need to stop it now before it is too late.

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Cancer Research Paper

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in the world today. Studies show that one in three people will suffer from some form of cancer in their lifetime. There are many different kinds of cancer that effect different parts of the body. Cancer is treated in various different ways. Some forms of cancer are curable, and some are not.

Cancer usually comes from the formation of a tumor. Tumors form in the body when cells are produced unnecessarily. That is to say, that new cells are formed when they are not needed, and they group together to form a tumor. The tumor can be benign, which means that it is non-cancerous, or it can be malignant, which means that it is cancerous. If cells break away from a malignant tumor, they will enter the bloodstream, and spread throughout the body, damaging other parts of the body.

Quite often, cancer appears with no definite cause. However, there are some activities that people engage in, that increase the risk of cancer. Smoking can cause cancer of the lung, mouth, and throat. Alcohol can cause cancer of the mouth, throat, and liver. Also, exposure to radiation and sunlight (or ultra-violet rays) can cause skin cancer. The exact cause of cancer still remains a mystery.

Cancer can be detected early on by certain symptoms. As cancer progresses through it’s various stages, it will produce certain symptoms. The symptoms depend on the size and location of the cancer. In some areas, symptoms will not appear until the cancer is very large, making the cancer much more difficult to treat. The general symptoms of cancer are fever, fatigue, severe weight loss, an alter of metabolism, blood clots, weakness and dizziness, and sores that don’t heal.

There are various different methods of treatment for cancer. Surgery is typically the first choice of most patients. If the cancer is localized, meaning it hasn’t spread, surgery is the best option. The surgeon will remove the tumor and the surrounding tissue. Surgery offers the greatest chance of a cure. The next method of treatment, which is usually a patient’s second choice, is chemotherapy. This method treats cancer cells that have spread.

Chemotherapy is used depending on the type of cancer, and the stage it is in. Chemotherapy will usually slow the cancer down, and keep it from spreading, and occasionally offer a cure. Chemotherapy specifically treats cancer by injecting strong medicine to a patient, and allowing the drugs to travel throughout the body. This treatment is given in cycles. The total course lasts six months. It reduces the risk of the cancer returning. The side effects include vomiting, hair loss, infections, and fatigue. The last treatment, which is usually a last resort, is Radiation. Radiation also treats localized cancer. It destroys cancer cells, so they don’t multiply. It is used alone, or in addition to Chemotherapy. More than one half of people with cancer undergo Radiation. Radiation is the process of external high-energy rays or implants inserted near the tumor, destroying the cancer cells. Radiation is given five days a week for five to eight weeks.

There are certain kinds of doctors who specialize in the treatment of cancer. These doctors are known in the medical world as Hematologists and Oncologists. These doctors specialize in the medical diagnosis and the treatment of cancer. They specialize in choosing between chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery. They are trained to recognize the warning signs and symptoms of cancer, and to diagnose the various types of cancer.

The term remission refers to a period of time when the cancer is responding to its treatment. When a patient is in remission, the cancer is under control. When someone is in complete remission, all signs and symptoms disappear. In partial remission, the cancer shrinks, but is still there. Remission can last anywhere from several weeks to many years. If the disease returns, another remission can be followed by further treatment.

With all kinds of cancer, there are seven major warning signs. These seven signs found in one person would indicate that the person may be suffering from some type of cancer, and this person should see a doctor immediately. The seven warning signs are a significant change in bowel or bladder habits, a sore that does not heal, unusual bleeding or discharge, thickening or lumps in breast, indigestion or difficulty swallowing, obvious changes in wart or mole, and a nagging cough or hoarseness.
One specific type of cancer is called Angiosarcomas, or cancer of the endothelial cells. This is a rare, and very serious form of cancer. This type of cancer occurs in the head and neck region, and it usually appears in the scalp of the elderly. Occasionally it is found in the oral cavity. When it appears, it is usually a painless, rounded mass, and it may have a bluish hue. Once this tumor first appears, growth is very rapid. For the most part, treatment involves the surgical removal of the mass. However, this form of cancer is rather rare, and it is hard to diagnose early on. Because of this, about half of the individuals who suffer from it die within fifteen months of diagnosis, and only about twelve percent will live for five years or more. With this type of cancer, the earlier it is detected, the better the chance of survival. In other words, the smaller the tumor is when treatment begins, the better the chances of survival. While this disease has occurred in infants, it typically occurs in people with an average age of sixty-five years old. The lesion is usually painless. It is attached to surrounding tissues, and usually grows very rapidly. However, occasionally it can grow very slowly.

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SARS Research Paper

Many people in the United States are unaware of a new deadly disease, which is wreaking havoc throughout the world because of the intense coverage of the war in Iraq. However, SARS or severe acute respiratory syndrome has currently infected 2,601 people worldwide and has killed 98 people as of April 7, 2003. The United States has been lucky thus far because no deaths have been reported in America. However, there have been 115 suspected SARS cases that have occurred in 27 states including California and New York, which are two of the most populated states.

Currently, the World Health Organization has defined SARS as an “atypical pneumonia of unknown Etiology.” Although this disease is very new and not much is known about it, researchers still have made some significant progress. Scientists have been able to link this disease to an unrecognizable version of the corona virus. The corona virus is named after its crown-like appearance and commonly causes the infected patient to have upper-respiratory problems. The major difference between the corona virus and SARS is that people infected with the corona virus usually have weakened immune systems to begin with. On the contrary, most SARS victims have been adults who were healthy before being infected with this deadly virus. Also, the corona virus is very rare in humans, it is mostly found in animals like dogs and cats. This is why scientists are investigating the possibility that this unknown version of the corona virus called SARS has been passed on from animals to humans just like HIV did.

HIV is a very deadly disease, but it is preventable for the most part as long as you practice safe sex. On the other hand, SARS is nearly unavoidable because it is much like other respiratory illnesses, which spread from close contact. For example, if one of your classmates became infected with SARS and they cough or sneeze while in the classroom they will release tiny droplets of infected matter into the air. If you breathe the air that is infected, then you can also become infected with the killer virus.

Once you have contracted SARS its takes anywhere from two to seven days for symptoms to be noticeable. The major symptoms for this disease is having a fever of a 100.4 or higher, chills, headache, muscle soreness, and a general feeling of discomfort is also common. Approximately three to seven days after being infected with the virus people have been experiencing a dry cough that can turn into hypoxemia, which is when there is a reduced concentration of oxygen in the blood. Also, about fifteen percent of infected patients have needed some type of assistance breathing either through intubation or mechanical ventilation. Doctors have begun to treat patients with antibiotics, antiviral agents, and a combination of steroids and antimicrobials. All these treatments have showed mild success this far.

Even though there is not much known about this deadly virus, hopefully this essay has made you more aware of the process of how the SARS virus is spread, contracted, and cured. Currently, there are two patients in Santa Barbara who have contracted SARS. This is why must be aware of this virus because it is so deadly, its so close to home, and the initial symptoms seem like you just have the common cold. However, if you believe you may have contracted SARS it is extremely important that you see a doctor immediately because if it is treated early you have a better chance of surviving.

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Capital Punishment Essay

The execution of fellow human beings in the pursuit of justice is as old as human history. What began thousands of years ago as a profound method of retribution involving not only the families of the victims but often the whole town; has grown and shrunk, widened and narrowed, and within the last hundred years gradually been reduced to a small minority of countries still executing their citizens for convicted crimes. It is an issue strife with controversy, and is always surrounded by debate whenever approached. (See also: buy essay)

This paper will address the history of the death penalty, from the far and distant past, though history until we reach the death penalty that we are familiar with today. We will specifically address Capital Punishment within the United States, how our citizens view it and how citizens of other countries view the U.S. We will address Capital Punishment and the law, both within the Federal Legal system and the State legal systems.

Finally, we will conclude with a view into the validity of capital punishment as a useful tool within today’s society, how effective America’s legal system is in meting out accurate justice, and a glimpse into some alternate measures that could be implemented in place of the death penalty.

Stoning was the earliest form of execution with recorded stonings dating back to 3000 – 1000 B.C. There was no formal legal process at the time, therefore early executions by stoning were unceremonious and brutal affairs. A typical stoning would consist of a family member of the harmed party or a witness to the crime placing a hand on the head of the offender in order “to mark them for execution”. At this point, either one of the family members or the witness would cast the first stone. If he could not produce death alone, then the bystanders would hurl them also. As laws began to develop, Jewish law set forth a more involved execution ritual involving two witnesses, but the rudiments remained the same. “When the offender came within four cubits of the place of execution, he was stripped naked, only leaving a covering before, and his hands being bound was led up to the fatal place, which was an eminence twice a man’s height. The first executioner’s of the sentence were the witnesses, who generally pulled off their clothes for the purpose: one of them threw him down with great violence upon his loins: if he rolled upon his breast, he was turned upon his loins again, and if he died by the fall there was an end; but if not, the other witnesses took a great stone and dashed it upon his breast as he lay upon his back; and then, if he was not dispatched, all the people that stood by threw stones at him till he died.” (Johnson 11)

As history progressed more involved methods of execution were devised coupled with different forms of legal proceedings. Hanging by strangulation became a method of choice throughout much of the then “civilized world”. In the Middle Ages, executions became a sort of pageantry, involving the whole town in a form of brutal entertainment.

After being convicted of a crime and sentenced to death (Confessions were usually produced through torture immediately following capture) an elaborate ceremony followed in the town square. The accused would be paraded through the crowd, who were encouraged to heckle and ridicule. The accused was then led up before a nobleman or priest of the King’s courts who would notify him of his crime and pronounce him to be sentenced to death through various forms of mutilation and torture. Some of the more popular procedures were, hang the person, cut them down immediately prior to death, and then disembowel or carve out his intestines and cut him into four pieces (This is commonly known as “to draw and quarter”. Another method was known as “breaking on the wheel” The accused was placed upon a wheel-like platform. The executioner then proceeded to break the arms and legs of the accused with a heavy iron bar. The mangled remains were then turned rapidly, scattering gore about, until the victim was dead. Another popular medieval execution was “sawing the victim in pieces”, in this type, the accused would be strung up by his feet, and then sawed vertically in half, of course while still alive.

For certain crimes, the laws specified exactly what was to be done to the victim, down to the details to be performed on specific body parts. One such example of this follows, “Ye do respectively go to the place from whence ye came; from thence to be drawn upon a sledge to the place of execution, to be there hanged up by the neck, to be cut down while ye are yet alive, to have your hearts and bowels taken out before your faces, and your members cut off and burnt. Your heads severed from your bodies and your bodies disposed into quarters, your heads and bodies respectively disposed of according to the king’s will and pleasure; and the lord have mercy on your souls.” (Johnson 14) Needless to say executions of today are a little less violent than in the past.

Executions progressed throughout history with methods only limited to the imagination of men: Beheadings by Guillotine, Hangings on the Gallows, Firing Squads, Electric Chairs, Gas Chambers, and our most modern form of Capital Punishment, the lethal injection. We could devote an entire book on the history of executions, (which Robert Johnson has done in his book, Death Work) but, we must move on.

The United States is a fairly young country compared to many established in the world today and our legal system although young is used a basis for other legal system adaptations throughout the world. Having broke away from England and basing much of our law on the English system, it is not surprising that we brought over Capital Punishment and have had it within our legal system ever since (minus a short reprieve from 1967 to 1977).

The first recorded execution within the United States was in 1622 in the colony of Virginia, with Daniel Frank being put to death for theft. His method of execution was not stated. Although it is a known fact that the death penalty has been part of American history since before our independence, statistics were not collected until 1930 on a regular basis. From 1930 until 1967 (the year a moratorium was placed on executions) 3859 people were executed under civil jurisdiction within the U.S. Three out of every five executions that took place during that period occurred within the Southern states. Georgia had the highest total with 366 executions, followed closely by New York with 329, Texas with 297, California with 292, and North Carolina with 263. Out of those 3859 executions 3334 were for murder, 455 were for rape, and 70 were for other offenses. The United States Civilian legal system was not alone in laying out justice in the form of the death penalty. During the same period, the U.S. Army executed 160 people. 106 were for murder (21 of which also involved rape), 53 for rape, and one for desertion.

At the same time, across the Atlantic, Europe was taking the stance of abolishing the death penalty as cruel and unjust. In 1965, England abolished the death penalty under the 1965 Murder Act. Other countries across Europe were following suit if they had not already done so. The pressure from the European countries on the United States to abolish the death penalty continues to this day. Amnesty International is the largest advocate for a worldwide abolition of the death penalty and has garnered much support. Amnesty International is backed by the United Nations who has become a staunch ally to their cause. As time progresses and more and more countries abolish the death penalty, many foreigners, especially Europeans view the United States as hypocrites. The U.S. has always declared itself as a strong supporter of human rights yet most European nations view capital punishment as a violation of human rights. One such group, Death Penalty Focus, go so far as to blatantly declare the United States as “keeping company with notorious human rights abusing countries such as Iraq, Iran, and China as major advocates and users of capital punishment.”

Within the United States, public support for the death penalty remains fairly high in regard to cases involving atrocious acts of murder, yet support drops off rapidly when the offender is a minor or mentally retarded. Also, when Americans are presented with alternatives to the death penalty, a greater majority prefers life without parole to those who still favor the death penalty. Hart Research performed an interesting poll in 1995; polling police chiefs across the United States and asking them to list the most effective methods for deterring violent crime. Many answers were given in various ratios, from reducing drug abuse to better gun control but only 1% of those polled listed the death penalty as a major deterrent of violent crime.

Legal challenges to the death penalty culminated in the Supreme Court Decision Furman vs. Georgia, 408 U.S. 153 which ruled the death penalty statutes unconstitutional because under these statutes the death penalty was being applied in an “arbitrary, capricious and discriminatory manner” contrary to the eighth amendment and the due process guarantees of the Fourteenth amendment. Two of the justices (Justices Brennan and Marshall) presiding at the time declared capital punishment to be unconstitutional in all instances.

The decision of Furman vs. Georgia created waves across the entire country. More than 600 death row inmates who had been sentenced to death between 1967 and 1972 had their death sentences lifted as a result of the decision. States quickly moved to revise legislation tailored to satisfy the Supreme Court’s objections to “arbitrary imposition” of death sentences.

In 1976 three cases were brought before the Supreme Court regarding the same matter. The three cases were Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153 (1976), Jurek v. Texas, 428 U.S. 262 (1976) and Proffitt v. Florida, 428 U.S. 242 (1976). All three of these cases dealt with guided discretion and afforded sentencing courts the discretion to impose death sentences for specified crimes and provided for two-stage (bifurcated) trials. These “bifurcated” trials involved, in the first stage, the determination of the defendants guilt or innocence and, in the second, determination of the sentence after “consideration of aggravating and mitigating circumstances.” In Georgia and Texas the final sentencing decision rested with the jury and in Florida with the judge.

Also in 1976 two cases came forward to the Supreme Court, which dealt with laws providing for mandatory death penalty for specific crimes, and allowing no judicial or jury discretion beyond the determination of guilt. The Supreme Court declared that the mandatory death penalty was unconstitutional in Woodson v. North Carolina, 428 U.S. 280 (1976), and Roberts vs. Louisiana, 428 U.S 325 (1976). These rulings led directly to the invalidation of mandatory death penalty statutes in 21 states, and resulted in the modification of the sentences of hundreds of offenders from the death penalty to life sentences.

Under the new death penalty laws the first execution since 1967 took place on January 17, 1977. Convicted murderer Gary Gilmore was executed by firing squad in Utah. Although for the first several years following the new death penalty laws, executions stayed low, they began to climb once again in 1984 with 21 people executed and continued to rise rapidly with 74 executions in 1997.

The death penalty was effectively restricted to murder when the Supreme Court ruled it unconstitutional for rape in the 1977 decision of Coker v. Georgia, 433 U.S 584 (1977) because applying the death penalty in rape cases was disproportionate to the crime. This resulted in twenty inmates across the country being removed from death rows. Although the courts have accepted that this decision prohibits the imposition of the death penalty for all crimes not resulting in death, several states have left untouched the capital felony statutes which provide it for such offences as kidnapping and rape of a child.

As of 1998, 38 states and the federal government have capital punishment laws. The twelve states who do not have death penalty laws are: Alaska, Hawaii, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, North Dakota, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. The District of Columbia also does not have a capital punishment law.

The push to abolish capital punishment is growing while executions still continue. Some of the statistics on Capital punishment for the year 200 are as follows. (Taken from The U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics) In 2000 85 persons in fourteen states were executed: 40 in Texas, 11 in Oklahoma, 8 in Virginia, 6 in Florida, 5 in Missouri, 4 in Alabama, 3 in Arizona, 2 in Arkansas, and one each in Delaware, Louisiana, North and South Carolina, Tennessee, and California. Of those executed 49 were white, 35 were black, and 1 was American Indian. 83 were men and two were women. At the end of 2000, 37 states and the Federal prison System held 3593 prisoners under sentence of death. All had committed murder. Of the 3593 prisoners, nearly 2/3 had prior felony convictions and roughly 1/12 had a prior homicide conviction.

With this many inmates on death row the question continues to arise, “How can we insure that all the individuals we sentence to death row are 100% guilty?” Can we justify a system that executes for heinous and depraved acts of murder if we acknowledge there will be mistakes? Is the death of 100 depraved murderers worth the life of one innocent citizen wrongly convicted?

The Death Penalty Information Center in Washington D.C. stated in 1997 that of the 6000 death sentences imposed between 1973 and 1997, 400 have been innocent. Of those 400, 23 were wrongly executed. These are the injustices that many are claiming must cause the United States to abolish the death penalty. Furthermore, some studies question whether the death penalty actually deters crime. The Thorsten Sellin studies in 1962, 1967, and 1980 conclude that the death penalty was not a deterrent. Others argue that the staggering cost of death penalty cases could better be diverted to the victim’s families or for various prison counseling programs. A 1993 California study revealed that the average death penalty case cost at least 1.25 million dollars.

In conclusion, the arguments for and against capital punishment are limitless and answers may not come in our lifetimes, but one thing is certain; violent and heinous crimes have occurred throughout history and will continue to do so. Until we discover a way to eradicate these violent crimes, there will be a need for a stern and final method of justice. The law works to the best of its ability to insure that the guilty are proven guilty beyond doubt. This paper is not designed to influence ones decisions regarding the death penalty. It is designed to educate people on capital punishment and how it works.

The future may decide that the death penalty is a violation of human rights and cause capital punishment to be abolished. In order for that to happen, there must be a unanimous decision that an alternate means of justice is in place to punish those who seek to break the law by brutally taking the life of a fellow citizen. What that alternative will be, only time will tell.
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