Throughout the ages the study of what we call today chemistry has evolved into a highly developed point of study. One distinct element of chemistry is atomic theory. Throughout the ages atomic theory has been developed and extended by many different men who were all well-known chemists and physicists in their day. They developed the study of atoms from pure conjecture into known facts.
John Dalton originally was a schoolteacher in England. He thought about atoms as particles, which could make up the elements of our universe. Dalton reasoned about the nature of compounds, his theory became known as the “law of multiple proportions: when two elements form a series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with one gram of the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers” (43). Dalton created his theory on atoms and their nature. It was made up of four parts. First, “each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms.” Second, “The atoms of a given element are identical; the atoms of different elements are different in some fundamental way or ways.” Third, “chemical compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with each other. A given compound always has the same relative numbers and types of atoms.” Fourth, “chemical reactions involve reorganization of the atoms-changes in the way they are bound together. The atoms themselves are not changed in a chemical reaction.” Dalton, using the information that he had deduced and assumptions that he had made, created a table of the atomic masses, also known as atomic weights. Despite the fact that many of the masses on Dalton’s table were proved incorrect the creation of a table was a major step in the field of chemistry. (45)
The ideas and information that Dalton produced and showed to the scientific community was built upon in many ways by his successors. The aspect that was most developed by the scientists that followed Dalton was the periodic laws and the table that is organized based on those laws.
After [. . .] Dalton had developed the idea of atomic weights, chemists sought arithmetic connections between them, partly to see whether there was any likelihood of all elements being composed of a simple, common substance and partly to see whether occasional similarities in their properties pointed to similarities in structure. [. . .] Mendeleyev [. . .] formulated the periodic law, according to which, when all known elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic weight, the resulting table shows a periodicity of properties and allows one to observe the many types of chemical relation hitherto studied only in isolation. (Britannica)
At first, as any other scientific revolution, the scientific community did not accept Mendeleyev’s table when his laws were published in his book Principles of Chemistry (1868-1871). However, his periodic laws stood true to all elements of his time. Another interesting point is that since then many other elements have been discovered or created which all follow the same laws. Mendeleyev even left spaces for elements that were not known at the time foretelling that there were elements that had not been discovered when he died. Mendeleyev went so far as to predict the properties of many of the elements that he expected to be discovered. Today, the Periodic Table of the Elements looks very different and has many more elements on it but it still is based on the same laws, which is quite remarkable when one thinks about it. The periodic table is made up of transition metals, the representative elements, and the noble gases. The representative elements and the noble gases are organized into eight groups. These groups are organized based upon the number of valence electrons in the atom of that element. For example, oxygen has an electron configuration of [O] 1s2, 2s2, 2p4. The outer most orbital is the second, and there are six electrons in that orbital. The eighth group is Helium and the noble gases. The noble gases are very stable elements because they fill their subshells completely. They all end in a s2, p6, which fills the subshells. The other elements, the transition metals are set in the middle and the lanthanide series and actinide series are pulled out from the table for space reasons.
Joseph Gay-Lussac, a French chemist and physicist, used his experiments to decipher the means of determining the absolute formulas of compounds. The experiments that Gay-Lussac performed were mainly with gases. He worked with hydrogen and oxygen specifically. Gay-Lussac discovered that two quantities of hydrogen reacted with one quantity of oxygen, which formed two quantities of water vapor. Avogadro later used Gay-Lussac’s data when Avogadro formed his hypothesis.
Amodeo Avogadro, an Italian, worked towards discovering the means of determining the absolute formulas of compounds, as Gay-Lussac did. He used the data from Gay-Lussac’s experiments to postulate a hypothesis, known as Avogadro’s hypothesis. It read: “at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain the same number of particles” (46). However, Avogadro’s deductions were ignored for fifty years before the chemistry community accepted his hypotheses.
William Crookes was another British scientist who helped the development of atomic theory. He developed atomic theory further through his cathode ray studies. Crookes’ experiments with cathode-ray tubes led him to show that when high-voltage electric current through the tube the tube glows. He also discovered that the cathode rays travel in straight lines. J.J. Thomson developed Crookes’ studies further a few years later.
J.J. Thomson, yet another Englishman, also worked on atomic theory. Thomson studied Crookes’ experiments and tested them. Thomson went on to discover that because the ray went from the negative cathode in the tube the ray must be negative. He also deduced that the ray was a stream of particles. Combining this deduction and his study that the ray went from negative to positive, he theorized that the stream must be a stream of negatively charged particles, now known as electrons. Thomson’s further studies allowed him to determine the ratio between the charge and mass of an electron, -1.76 X 108 C/g. Also from his experiments, Thomson discovered that all atoms must contain electrons. This must be true, he thought, because the rays occurred with various metals. Thomson is also known for his ‘plum pudding’ model of the atom. He believed that an atom was an amorphous mass in which there was no defined structure.
The New Zealand scientist that is notable for his work on atomic theory is Ernest Rutherford. Just after the turn of the twentieth century Rutherford was working on many experiments expanding on his predecessors. One of Rutherford’s most famous experiments was the one in which he tested Thomson’s ‘plum pudding’ model of the atom. Rutherford set up a device that aimed a particles at a thin metal foil with a screen encircling the metal foil meant to detect the a particles. According to Thomson’s belief the particles would all go right through the foil and hit the screen behind the metal foil. However, in the experiment when Rutherford sent the a particles at the metal foil the particles went in more than one direction. Many of them went right through the foil, however, some also were redirected when they contacted the metal foil. Knowing that electrons were negatively charged, Rutherford was able to hypothesize that there was a positively charged mass in the center of an atom, which he named the nucleus. However, many a particles still went through the foil, which told Rutherford that an atom had a great amount of empty space in its structure. Therefore, the structure was a relatively massive, positively charged center with electrons spread out throughout a large volume containing the extremely small electrons. Based on Thomson and Rutherford’s experimentation today we have developed a great deal of knowledge on the structure of an atom. We know that the atom is made up of negatively charged electrons which have almost no mass, neutral neutrons with a mass of about one atomic mass unit, and positively charged protons with a mass of about one atomic mass unit.
The German scientist, Max Planck, is also known for his advances in atomic theory. Planck studied the radiation given off by solid bodies that were heated to incandescence. Through Planck’s experimentation he discovered that matter could absorb or radiate any amount of energy. Planck explained his observations through an assumption “that energy can be gained or lost only in whole-number multiples” (295). The equation that went along with this assumption was DE=nhv, often used as DE=hv. In this equation DE is the change in energy, n is an integer, h is Planck’s constant (6.626 X 10-34 J-s), and v is the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation that is either absorbed or radiated. Before Planck’s experiments the belief of the scientific community was that the energy of matter did not change. Today based on Planck’s studies, we know that energy can only be found in certain quantities, the hv of Planck’s equation, which are now known as quanta (singular – quantum) which indicates that energy has separate properties from any other substance; this leads to quantum physics.
A notable Danish scientist, Neils Bohr, worked on atomic theory and is known for his model of the atom. Bohr offered a new idea. He stated “that the electron in a hydrogen atom moves around the nucleus only in certain allowed circular orbits” (301). This is known as the quantum model for the hydrogen atom. Through his knowledge of classical physics and its theories and some assumptions of his own he calculated the radii of the ‘allowed’ orbits of the electrons in a hydrogen atom. Bohr developed many ideas, which supported his quantum model. One of which asserts the energy levels available to the electron in the hydrogen atom. This equation is as follows: E=(-2.178 X 10-18J)(Z2/n2); the n is an integer (the larger the integer the larger the radius of the orbit) and Z is the charge of the nucleus.
Werner Heisenberg, a German, Louis de Broglie, a Frenchman, and Erwin Schrodinger, an Austrian, all worked towards a new model of the atom knowing that the Bohr model was not correct. These three men adopted a new path in the study of the atom. It is known as the wave, or quantum, mechanics theory. This resulted in yet another model of the atom. De Broglie discovered that the electron has wave properties. Schrodinger continued in this thought by trying to emphasize the wave properties of an atom. De Broglie and Schrodinger believed that the connection between the nucleus and an electron was comparable to a standing wave. Examples of standing waves include things like string instruments and so they studied standing waves and compared their findings to atomic structure. Schrodinger came up with an atom model that had electrons that behaved as if they were standing waves.
Schrodinger’s equation is: Hy=Ey; where y, called the wave function, is a function of the coordinates (x, y, and z) of the electron’s position in three-dimensional space and H represents a set of mathematical instructions called an operator. In this case, the operator contains mathematical terms that produce the total energy of the atom (the sum of the potential energy due to the attraction between the proton and electron and the kinetic energy of the moving electron). When this equation is analyzed, many solutions are found. Each solution consists of a wave function y that is characterized by a particular value of E. A specific wave function is often known as an orbital. (307)
When Schrodinger’s equation is solved the results show that there are many wave functions, orbitals, that are solutions. Every individual orbital is distinguished by quantum numbers, which can be deciphered so that the properties of the orbital are known. There are three kinds of quantum numbers: principal, angular momentum, and magnetic.
The principal quantum number (n) has integral values: 1, 2, and 3,…. The principal quantum number is related to the size and energy of the orbital. As n increases, the orbital becomes larger and the electron spends more time further from the nucleus. An increase in n also means higher energy, because the electron is less tightly bound to the nucleus and the energy is less negative.
The angular momentum quantum number (l) has integral values from 0 to (n – 1) for each value of n. This quantum number is related to the shape of atomic orbitals. The value of l for a particular orbital is commonly assigned a letter: l = 0 is called s; l = 1 is called p; l = 2 is called d; l = 3 is called f. This system arises from early spectral studies [. . .]. [l is also sometimes known as a subshell.]
The magnetic quantum number (ml) has integral values between l and –l, including 0. The value of ml is related to the orientation of the orbital in space relative to the other orbitals in the atom. (309-310)
Heisenberg’s discoveries added another twist to atomic theory, especially the wave, or quantum mechanics model. He concluded that “there is a fundamental limitation to just how precisely we can know both the position and momentum of a particle at a given time” (307). This is known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Mathematically speaking it is shown as follows: “(Dx)[D(mv)]і[h/(4p)] where Dx is the uncertainty in a particle’s position, D(mv) is the uncertainty in a particle’s momentum, and h is Planck’s constant. Thus the minimum uncertainty in the equation is h/(4p)” (307). The only problem with the equation of the uncertainty principle is that the closer or more accurate a position measurement the more inaccurate the measurement of momentum is. When this principle is exercised in thinking about electrons it is shown that it is impossible for us to know the exact motion of an electron on its path around the nucleus. Therefore, Heisenberg disproves Bohr’s atomic model, a specified orbit, by his uncertainty principle.
The periodic table can be looked in blocks as well. The blocks are called the s-block, p-block, d-block, and f-block. These blocks have to do with the subshells of orbitals. Electrons fill up orbitals in order from 1 up. However, within these orbitals electrons fill up subshells. The subshells fill up in order from s, to p, to d, and then finally to f. The s subshell can hold up to two electrons, the p subshell can hold up to six electrons, the d subshell holds up to ten electrons, and the f subshell holds at maximum fourteen electrons. From left to right the first two vertical columns of elements and Helium are in the s-block because the last subshell in which electrons fall into is a s subshell. The p-block includes the elements in rest of the representative elements and the noble gases. The d-block includes all of the transition metals with exception of the lanthanide series and actinide series. The lanthanide series and actinide series are the elements in the f-block. These subshells fill in an order, which is shown in the aufbau principle.
From the work of the scientists who worked on atomic theory we know that electrons can be moved around between atoms. The atoms that lose an electron or electrons are called ions. Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from an atom so that the atom is at its considered ground state, forming a positive ion. An atom’s ground state is defined as the lowest possible energy state. There are two types of ionization energy: first and second ionization energy. First ionization energy is the energy need to remove the highest energy electron from an atom. Second ionization energy is much greater than first ionization energy and removes the next highest energy electron from the atom. This is true is because when an atom has a positive charge, after one electron has already been removed; the atom is bounded stronger than before. Therefore, more energy is necessary to remove a second electron from an atom. On the periodic table ionization energy reduces as one goes down a group of elements; for example, Helium has the highest ionization energy in the eighth group while Radon has the lowest. Also, as one moves from left to right ionization energy increases in most cases. For instance, Hydrogen has a lower ionization energy level than Helium. Electron affinity is the energy required for adding an electron to an atom, forming a negative ion. Generally, when going down a group on the periodic table electron affinity decreases, or gets closer to zero or more positive, but the differences are very small.
In conclusion, over many years scientists have developed atomic theory. However, it is all based on the things the early chemists did, including the experiments they performed and the information they passed on. In many respects, the early atomic theorists were the most important because they helped pave the way for the other scientists that continued to develop atomic theory.
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Thursday, July 30, 2009
Wednesday, July 29, 2009
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Ph.D. Thesis Writing
The process of researching, planning and preparing a thesis paper for a Ph.D. is probably one of the most compliacted academic assignments that you are likely to undertake in your educational life. The process of Ph.D. thesis writing is a great journey of despair and excitement which will definitely test your personal character to the very core.
Academic thesis writing for Ph.D. degree is not as easy as it sounds and at times can become a very lonely space that will leave you doubting your ability and your interest in what you are actually writing about. Nevertheless, finishing a thesis will also be one of the most satisfactory academic moments you can experience.
With this in mind it is absolutely essential that you give yourself the best possible chance of working through your Ph.D. thesis until its completion. This instructional article will talk about some of main considerations that you ought to make to reach the finish line.
The first and one of the most important considerations is planning of your Ph.D. thesis. If you do not start as you mean to go on and properly organize your work then you can expect to become incredibly frustrated by the slow and misorganized writing progress. I suggest that you develop good habits early by developing a simple filing system; this should be done both on the computer and in paper format.
You have to create and arrange folders to each chapter and sub-chapter of your Ph.D. thesis. Remember to make a regular back up of all essential computer files with your Ph.D. thesis chapters. You also have to plan any essential deadlines in your academic schedule so that you are not made to rush any thesis part of your Ph.D. thesis or PhD dissertation in university.
At the planning stage you also have to develop a thesis outline of the whole paper, so that you have a roadmap and a structured path to completing the project for your Ph.D. academic degree. At this stage you should construct thesis chapter headlines and also a brief description of what each chapter targets to address. This is especially helpful in assisting to break the whole thesis paper down so it feels far less daunting. You will finish the thesis project faster by completing smaller parts of it one at a time.
A crucial consideration of the PhD thesis is the style of the work. This is essential because you need to engage with your target audience correctly. So for instance if you are engaged in Ph.D. thesis writing on a scientific subject then you'd be expected to use the relevant scientific or technical language. Conversely, the use of slang language will make it more complicated for the reader to comprehense the meaning of your work. Undoubtedly your work needs to use the correct grammar and spelling.
As you approach the end of the Ph.D. thesis don't become distracted by the need to make the thesis look visually attractive. There are a lot of candidates in the past that have neglected the actual work by focusing only on creating fanciful cover sheets or improving diagrams. At the end of the day your success or otherwise failure will be decided by the words on the page and not by any other aspect-factor.
The final tip on writing a PhD thesis paper relates to completion of your project. As I have already stated Ph.D. thesis writing is an arduous and long academic task and no matter how much time you spend on writing your thesis there will always be something that you could brush up. My suggestion is not to become driven by perfectionism and instead aim to finaish the work strictly before the deadline set. Providing you have covered all of the major expectations for your Ph.D. thesis then you will be fine in succeeding.
If you are going to prepare your Ph.D. thesis paper, if you are looking for resources to get free assistance, you can easily browse the Internet and find a lot of different guidelines, tutorials and tips on how to write a good Ph.D. thesis. But if you have no time to make a PhD thesis, if you are worried with such questions: "Who can help write my Ph.D. thesis for money?", "Can I pay someone to do my Ph.D. thesis at an affordable cost?", "Which Ph.D. dissertation writing company is the best in providing original custom written theses for Ph.D. level?". We are here to give you a hand in writing Ph.D. theses at relatively low rates. If you don't know at which website you should purchase a unique Ph.D. thesis or dissertation - we will provide you with premium quality custom written papers.
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Academic thesis writing for Ph.D. degree is not as easy as it sounds and at times can become a very lonely space that will leave you doubting your ability and your interest in what you are actually writing about. Nevertheless, finishing a thesis will also be one of the most satisfactory academic moments you can experience.
With this in mind it is absolutely essential that you give yourself the best possible chance of working through your Ph.D. thesis until its completion. This instructional article will talk about some of main considerations that you ought to make to reach the finish line.
The first and one of the most important considerations is planning of your Ph.D. thesis. If you do not start as you mean to go on and properly organize your work then you can expect to become incredibly frustrated by the slow and misorganized writing progress. I suggest that you develop good habits early by developing a simple filing system; this should be done both on the computer and in paper format.
You have to create and arrange folders to each chapter and sub-chapter of your Ph.D. thesis. Remember to make a regular back up of all essential computer files with your Ph.D. thesis chapters. You also have to plan any essential deadlines in your academic schedule so that you are not made to rush any thesis part of your Ph.D. thesis or PhD dissertation in university.
At the planning stage you also have to develop a thesis outline of the whole paper, so that you have a roadmap and a structured path to completing the project for your Ph.D. academic degree. At this stage you should construct thesis chapter headlines and also a brief description of what each chapter targets to address. This is especially helpful in assisting to break the whole thesis paper down so it feels far less daunting. You will finish the thesis project faster by completing smaller parts of it one at a time.
A crucial consideration of the PhD thesis is the style of the work. This is essential because you need to engage with your target audience correctly. So for instance if you are engaged in Ph.D. thesis writing on a scientific subject then you'd be expected to use the relevant scientific or technical language. Conversely, the use of slang language will make it more complicated for the reader to comprehense the meaning of your work. Undoubtedly your work needs to use the correct grammar and spelling.
As you approach the end of the Ph.D. thesis don't become distracted by the need to make the thesis look visually attractive. There are a lot of candidates in the past that have neglected the actual work by focusing only on creating fanciful cover sheets or improving diagrams. At the end of the day your success or otherwise failure will be decided by the words on the page and not by any other aspect-factor.
The final tip on writing a PhD thesis paper relates to completion of your project. As I have already stated Ph.D. thesis writing is an arduous and long academic task and no matter how much time you spend on writing your thesis there will always be something that you could brush up. My suggestion is not to become driven by perfectionism and instead aim to finaish the work strictly before the deadline set. Providing you have covered all of the major expectations for your Ph.D. thesis then you will be fine in succeeding.
If you are going to prepare your Ph.D. thesis paper, if you are looking for resources to get free assistance, you can easily browse the Internet and find a lot of different guidelines, tutorials and tips on how to write a good Ph.D. thesis. But if you have no time to make a PhD thesis, if you are worried with such questions: "Who can help write my Ph.D. thesis for money?", "Can I pay someone to do my Ph.D. thesis at an affordable cost?", "Which Ph.D. dissertation writing company is the best in providing original custom written theses for Ph.D. level?". We are here to give you a hand in writing Ph.D. theses at relatively low rates. If you don't know at which website you should purchase a unique Ph.D. thesis or dissertation - we will provide you with premium quality custom written papers.
If you find these tips on how to write a good Ph.D. thesis uneffective, you can always contact professional thesis writing service which will provide you with a custom Ph.D. thesis written by highly qualified academic writers. Free sample Ph.D. thesis papers and Ph.D. thesis examples from available Internet resources are ineffective for education. And if you are ready to pay to have your Ph.D. paper prepared by academic experts - feel free to order your Ph.D. thesis at our custom thesis/dissertation writing company which is committed to write only high-quality custom theses and dissertations on any topic. Our writers deliver 100% non-plagiarized Ph.D. theses at an affordable cost. Need professional Ph.D. thesis help? Are you looking for websites to get quality Ph.D. thesis assistance online? Ready to pay for a custom written thesis? Contact our agency and buy a Ph.D. thesis online in any thesis format: MLA, APA, Turabian, Chicago or Harvard citation style.
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Charles Spencer Chapman Essay
Charles Spencer Chapman was born in Walworth, England on April 19, 1989. He was born into a poor English family and lived a very rough childhood. Both his parents worked in show business. Both of them were music hall artists, his father became very well known. Although, he always idolized his mother, especially when he would see her performances in the back stage area. By the time he was 10, his parents separated leaving Charlie and his brother Sydney to live with their mother. It was a hard time for Charlie, especially when his father died in 1901. Later his mother had a breakdown and was admitted to an asylum in 1903. With his mother gone Charlie and Sydney were forced into an orphanage. Since he sat back stage at his mother's shows, Charlie wanted to pursue a career in film. He persevered through his troubled childhood to fight for his dream.
Charlie Chaplin became one of the most important actors in the history of motion picture. He was sometimes called "the funniest man in the world." He was also called the most versatile in movies. Not only was an outstanding actor, he wrote and directed almost all of his films, and also wrote the music for all his sound pictures. He first began in films in 1903 when he played as a paperboy in Sherlock Holmes. His first glimpse of stardom came in 1914, when he first appeared as "the Tramp." Later in 1919, he formed the United Artist Film Corporation, with a few major actors of this time. He began shooting fewer films, but the films he did produce were longer and much more serious. He still created laughter, but he wanted to make the point that respectability and authority did little for the human soul. It was during this time that he produced some of his most famous films, "The Kid" and "Gold Rush", in which he portrayed the character of the tramp. In 1940, he played two characters in the film, "The Great Dictator." In the film, he played a humble Jewish barber and a tyrant based on the famous dictator, Adolf Hitler. The tragic movie had been long waited for and was a step back from his normal nonsense comedy pictures. People left with mixed emotions, some fans even wondered how he got away without a lynching. He was criticized for many of his films and lifestyle, and was accused of supporting communism. He and his family later moved to Switzerland, after being banned from the United States. He continued directing films into the 1950's, 60's, and 70's. He returned to the United States in 1972, to participate in ceremonies in New York and Los Angelas, in his name. He received an honorary Oscar at the Academy Awards. On Christmas Day in 1977 Charlie Chaplin died at the age of 87.
Charlie Chaplin became one of the most important actors in the history of motion picture. He was sometimes called "the funniest man in the world." He was also called the most versatile in movies. Not only was an outstanding actor, he wrote and directed almost all of his films, and also wrote the music for all his sound pictures. He first began in films in 1903 when he played as a paperboy in Sherlock Holmes. His first glimpse of stardom came in 1914, when he first appeared as "the Tramp." Later in 1919, he formed the United Artist Film Corporation, with a few major actors of this time. He began shooting fewer films, but the films he did produce were longer and much more serious. He still created laughter, but he wanted to make the point that respectability and authority did little for the human soul. It was during this time that he produced some of his most famous films, "The Kid" and "Gold Rush", in which he portrayed the character of the tramp. In 1940, he played two characters in the film, "The Great Dictator." In the film, he played a humble Jewish barber and a tyrant based on the famous dictator, Adolf Hitler. The tragic movie had been long waited for and was a step back from his normal nonsense comedy pictures. People left with mixed emotions, some fans even wondered how he got away without a lynching. He was criticized for many of his films and lifestyle, and was accused of supporting communism. He and his family later moved to Switzerland, after being banned from the United States. He continued directing films into the 1950's, 60's, and 70's. He returned to the United States in 1972, to participate in ceremonies in New York and Los Angelas, in his name. He received an honorary Oscar at the Academy Awards. On Christmas Day in 1977 Charlie Chaplin died at the age of 87.
Tuesday, July 28, 2009
Custom Personal Statement
What is a personal statement? A personal statement essay, or statement of pupose, is a short and focused paper about someone's research goals or career, and is very often required for applicants to professional schools, graduate schools, colleges and universities.
Writing a personal statement is very popular among college and university students. But to write a good personal statement paper you should possess great essay writing skills. Not every student has perfect skills and abilities in writing excellent personal statements. Indeed, personal statement writing requires a lot of patience, analytical skills and persistence, of course, to complete your personal statement with excellence.
A lot of websites offer unlimited access to thousands of free personal statements, sample personal statements and personal statement examples. All these essays are written by professional writers, but cannot be used as your own personal statement paper, as prepared not by yourself. These free personal statement papers are 100% plagiarized and easily traced by plagiarism detecting systems (almost each and every professor checks your paper for plagiarism). There are also a lot of useful sites with free personal statement tips and instructions on how to write a good personal statement essay. But these guides also cannot be used effectively, only in instructional purposes.
A lot of college and university students need online personal statement writing help provided by professional academic writers employed to help students with writing personal statement essays on a fee basis. Such personal statement papers called "custom personal statement" essays. If you want to get a 100% custom written personal statement you should contact professional personal statement writing services at which you can buy a custom personal statement online. All these custom personal statements are prepared by qualified writers.
Our company has recently developed high-quality custom personal statement writing services to help students with writing personal statement papers at affordable prices. All our customized personal statements are written from scratch by professional Ph.D. and Master's academic writers who are well-experienced and certified writers (from the US, UK, Canada and Australia). Our agency can guarantee you 100% original personal statements written strictly according to your academic specifications and requirements. Do you need a personal statement in MLA, APA, Turabian, Chicago or Harvard format? Delegate your personal statement assignment to our writers. and they will do a good personal statement essay for you. Are you worring about deadlines? Relax, our writers are deadline-oriented to deliver your paper even within 8 hours. Get stuck with your personal statement topic? Don't worry our academic experts can write your personal statement on any topic. By the way, our professional writers can prepare your personal statement paper in more than 96 subjects including English, Business, Law, Marketing, Management, Economics, Sociology, Religion, Literature, History, Nursing, Medicine, Communications, Technology, IT, Psychology, Philosophy, Engineering, Ecology, Criminology, Government, Diplomacy, Tourism, Arts, Architecture, Geography, Geology, Computer science, Political science, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, Education, Accounting, Finance, Music, Sports, Media studies, Anthropology, International studies, Teaching, Linguistics etc.
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Writing a personal statement is very popular among college and university students. But to write a good personal statement paper you should possess great essay writing skills. Not every student has perfect skills and abilities in writing excellent personal statements. Indeed, personal statement writing requires a lot of patience, analytical skills and persistence, of course, to complete your personal statement with excellence.
A lot of websites offer unlimited access to thousands of free personal statements, sample personal statements and personal statement examples. All these essays are written by professional writers, but cannot be used as your own personal statement paper, as prepared not by yourself. These free personal statement papers are 100% plagiarized and easily traced by plagiarism detecting systems (almost each and every professor checks your paper for plagiarism). There are also a lot of useful sites with free personal statement tips and instructions on how to write a good personal statement essay. But these guides also cannot be used effectively, only in instructional purposes.
A lot of college and university students need online personal statement writing help provided by professional academic writers employed to help students with writing personal statement essays on a fee basis. Such personal statement papers called "custom personal statement" essays. If you want to get a 100% custom written personal statement you should contact professional personal statement writing services at which you can buy a custom personal statement online. All these custom personal statements are prepared by qualified writers.
Our company has recently developed high-quality custom personal statement writing services to help students with writing personal statement papers at affordable prices. All our customized personal statements are written from scratch by professional Ph.D. and Master's academic writers who are well-experienced and certified writers (from the US, UK, Canada and Australia). Our agency can guarantee you 100% original personal statements written strictly according to your academic specifications and requirements. Do you need a personal statement in MLA, APA, Turabian, Chicago or Harvard format? Delegate your personal statement assignment to our writers. and they will do a good personal statement essay for you. Are you worring about deadlines? Relax, our writers are deadline-oriented to deliver your paper even within 8 hours. Get stuck with your personal statement topic? Don't worry our academic experts can write your personal statement on any topic. By the way, our professional writers can prepare your personal statement paper in more than 96 subjects including English, Business, Law, Marketing, Management, Economics, Sociology, Religion, Literature, History, Nursing, Medicine, Communications, Technology, IT, Psychology, Philosophy, Engineering, Ecology, Criminology, Government, Diplomacy, Tourism, Arts, Architecture, Geography, Geology, Computer science, Political science, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, Education, Accounting, Finance, Music, Sports, Media studies, Anthropology, International studies, Teaching, Linguistics etc.
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Communication Research Paper
“Communication is a complex process that can be viewed in many ways.” (Trenholm 17). We use models to help us understand the process of communication in order to interpret and analyze certain situations. These models help to arrange our thoughts, investigate the situation at hand, and find ways to improve our communication. Both the psychological model and the pragmatic model exemplify good communication and establish development in many interactions among people. Models become useful in order for analysis, when a problematic interaction occurs that may cause the persons involved, misunderstanding, frustration, and or conflict.
Many disagreements and arguments commonly arise between two people living together, such as roommates in college. I have personally experienced a problematic difference with my roommate, Sarah, this year concerning the purchasing of food among other necessities that has caused me much frustration. Every week I find it necessary to purchase food and water. I seem to be the one to go out to the grocery store to purchase the food that is needed for both Sarah and me. Last week, slightly irritated, I kindly asked Sarah what it was she needed to satisfy her for the week. She handed me a list of several items that she wished me to get for her. I took her list, collaborated it with mine, and headed to the grocery store to buy what we both wanted. Everything listed I happily bought, knowing full well that I would be reimbursed. When I returned, I showed Sarah what I had bought and informed her what she owed me. She told me that the next time she would go to the grocery store, purchase what we needed, and we would be equal. I hesitated for a couple of seconds, but then agreed. I trusted that the next time we needed anything I could rely on her to buy the items that we desired not having to worry about paying her back.
By Friday, we seemed to have run out of bottled water and food. For the first time, she offered to go to the grocery store. I made a list of the things we needed and she assured me she would return with them just like I returned with what she wanted. Sadly, however, when Sarah returned, she came in with only a six-pack of Diet Coke and a six-pack of bottled water. She left a note on my bed explaining to me that I owed her half of what she paid for the drinks. None of the items I had listed she bought. Aggravated, I grabbed my bike and pedaled as fast as possible to the grocery store to obtain the things I listed for her to buy originally. When I came back, I angrily stored my food away on the shelf and in the refrigerator, and refused to speak to her the rest of the evening.
Ending an interaction in an irrational manor is not healthy and does not exude good communication. Using the psychological model and the pragmatic model, I can better understand a more effective way to interact with my roommate and solve the problem more maturely. The psychological model is, “a process whereby two or more individuals exchange meanings through the transmission and reception of communication stimuli.” (Trenholm 25). As projected by this model, “an individual is a sender or a receiver who encodes and decodes meanings.” (Trenholm 25). According to the pragmatic model, “communication consists of a system of interlocking, interdependent behaviors that become patterned over time.” (Trenholm 32).
“ Communication is most successful when individuals are of the same mind-when the meanings they assign to messages are similar or identical.” (Trenholm 26). Examining the interaction through the psychological model, I can first discuss both Sarah’s mindset and mine. I believed that it was logical and fair that if I went to the grocery store and purchased items that were needed, Sarah would either reimburse me with exactly half of what I paid or the next time things were needed, she would be the one to pay. On the other hand, Sarah figured if I bought items for us to enjoy out of the goodness of my heart, however, when she purchased food or drinks, it was her understanding that I would pay her half of what she had paid. I encoded my message to Sarah to buy the food I wanted for the week, if she wasn’t going to pay me back for the last set of groceries. This message traveled along a channel until it reached Sarah. It was up to her to decode my message and reply accordingly. Unfortunately, Sarah did not. She chose to take my list of groceries and only buy what she wanted for the week. She encoded to me that she wanted me to pay her back half of what she paid for the drinks she bought. I decoded the message and became very furious with her and decided to ignore her for the rest of the evening. Our communication was clearly unsuccessful because the meaning intended by me differed from that of Sarah’s. Our mental sets were so far apart that there was no shared feelings or thoughts.
The psychological model shows ways that both the sender and receiver can improve communication. It suggests that a sender should try to see things from the receivers’ point of view. It also explains that the sender should make themselves clear when decoding a message to receivers. In my interaction with my roommate, I could have sat down with her and together created some ground rules for the purchasing of food. We could have then made an agreement and signed a piece of paper to make sure that we both fully understood each other and what each other wanted. The receiver too can improve their communication by listening more carefully to the sender and ask questions if necessary to check their understanding. In this case, Sarah could have listened better to what I was asking of her and asked questions if she was confused. With these ways of improvement I would have found myself less aggravated and more satisfied.
“To understand communication, you need to understand the moves people use as they work out their relationship to one another.” (Trenholm 32). It is seen through the pragmatic model that the focus is on the action, what the sender and receiver are actually doing in response to each other’s messages. Sarah handed me a list of items she wanted. I understood that if I bought groceries, upon my return I would be paid back. Instead, Sarah offered to purchase the next set of groceries the following week instead of paying me back. I agreed. I handed Sarah a list of the things I wanted. I understood that she would return with what I requested her to buy. Sarah then went to the store and came back with only drinks, none of which I had wanted. She left me a note asking for money. It was clear to me that she obviously didn’t understand me and for that matter I certainly did not understand her. I then angrily went to the store, purchased what I wanted and ignored Sarah that evening. Every move each of us made affected each other’s actions. The end result of the interaction was upset.
Just like the psychological model has ways of improving communication, so does the pragmatic model. According to the pragmatic model, “the best way to understand and improve communication is to describe the forms or patterns that the communication takes.” (Trenholm 34). Taking a look at the communication patterns in my interaction with Sarah, I can conclude that our responses to one another were ineffective and intensified the problem. Both Sarah and I could have played the communication game better by working out a more effective set of moves that would make us both happy. Instead of focusing on each other’s personalities, the focus should have been on the actions that took place during the interaction. Sarah and I could have sat down and talked about each other’s understanding of the purchasing of food for our dorm and talked about what actions frustrated us. This kind of problem solving would also result in a happier ending, with both of us understanding one another.
While the psychological model deals with mental sets, encoding and decoding messages, and the noise level, the pragmatic model is concerned with what actions took place to cause the person’s involved upset and frustration. Although each has different focuses, both of these models share a common goal of improving communication. They both suggest understanding each other’s messages and figuring out ways to satisfy both persons involved. The psychological model and the pragmatic model both propose strong and useful ways of analyzing and improving interactions, but with this particular interaction, the psychological model does a better job of examining this problem and making improvements more successfully.
The interaction between Sarah and I can best be examined through the psychological model because it analyzed and improved our situation more thoroughly than the pragmatic model did. I thought it was best to purchase food and drinks if I was going to be paid back or promised free of charge on the next set of groceries. Sarah thought she wasn’t obligated to pay me back for groceries and then, charge me half of what she paid for the drinks. Although our messages back and forth seemed to be understood, they were not. We had different mindsets and our messages were perceived by one another differently. The psychological model helps to better understand the messages being sent and received. This model says that by understanding mindsets and messages clearly, one can improve communication. If Sarah and I had a better understanding of each other’s needs and wants and had come to an agreement on the purchasing of groceries, we possibly could have avoided this problematic interaction.
Though the psychological model is the most popular view of communication, it poses some problems. According to Trenholm, the psychological model ignores the social context in which communication occurs, it treats messages as if they were physical objects, and the only way for good communication to occur is if people can agree on ideas eventually. With all models, error is likely to occur and may cause malfunction in certain interactions, however, this model systematically helped me to improve my communication with my roommate by understanding her thoughts and massages. In the future, I plan on using the psychological model if I ever am faced with a problematic interaction that deals with the misunderstanding of messages, in order to demonstrate good communication.
__________________
Warning!!! This is just a sample Communication research paper (Communication research paper example) which cannot be used as your own paper. You can contact our custom research paper writing service which provides college and university students with high-quality custom written essays, term papers, research papers, thesis papers and dissertations on Communication topics.
Get professional Communication research paper writing help from our professional Ph.D. and Master's academic writers. A+ quality and 100% plagiarism are guaranteed! Feel free to ORDER A CUSTOM RESEARCH PAPER ON COMMUNICATION RIGHT NOW and you won't be disappointed.
Many disagreements and arguments commonly arise between two people living together, such as roommates in college. I have personally experienced a problematic difference with my roommate, Sarah, this year concerning the purchasing of food among other necessities that has caused me much frustration. Every week I find it necessary to purchase food and water. I seem to be the one to go out to the grocery store to purchase the food that is needed for both Sarah and me. Last week, slightly irritated, I kindly asked Sarah what it was she needed to satisfy her for the week. She handed me a list of several items that she wished me to get for her. I took her list, collaborated it with mine, and headed to the grocery store to buy what we both wanted. Everything listed I happily bought, knowing full well that I would be reimbursed. When I returned, I showed Sarah what I had bought and informed her what she owed me. She told me that the next time she would go to the grocery store, purchase what we needed, and we would be equal. I hesitated for a couple of seconds, but then agreed. I trusted that the next time we needed anything I could rely on her to buy the items that we desired not having to worry about paying her back.
By Friday, we seemed to have run out of bottled water and food. For the first time, she offered to go to the grocery store. I made a list of the things we needed and she assured me she would return with them just like I returned with what she wanted. Sadly, however, when Sarah returned, she came in with only a six-pack of Diet Coke and a six-pack of bottled water. She left a note on my bed explaining to me that I owed her half of what she paid for the drinks. None of the items I had listed she bought. Aggravated, I grabbed my bike and pedaled as fast as possible to the grocery store to obtain the things I listed for her to buy originally. When I came back, I angrily stored my food away on the shelf and in the refrigerator, and refused to speak to her the rest of the evening.
Ending an interaction in an irrational manor is not healthy and does not exude good communication. Using the psychological model and the pragmatic model, I can better understand a more effective way to interact with my roommate and solve the problem more maturely. The psychological model is, “a process whereby two or more individuals exchange meanings through the transmission and reception of communication stimuli.” (Trenholm 25). As projected by this model, “an individual is a sender or a receiver who encodes and decodes meanings.” (Trenholm 25). According to the pragmatic model, “communication consists of a system of interlocking, interdependent behaviors that become patterned over time.” (Trenholm 32).
“ Communication is most successful when individuals are of the same mind-when the meanings they assign to messages are similar or identical.” (Trenholm 26). Examining the interaction through the psychological model, I can first discuss both Sarah’s mindset and mine. I believed that it was logical and fair that if I went to the grocery store and purchased items that were needed, Sarah would either reimburse me with exactly half of what I paid or the next time things were needed, she would be the one to pay. On the other hand, Sarah figured if I bought items for us to enjoy out of the goodness of my heart, however, when she purchased food or drinks, it was her understanding that I would pay her half of what she had paid. I encoded my message to Sarah to buy the food I wanted for the week, if she wasn’t going to pay me back for the last set of groceries. This message traveled along a channel until it reached Sarah. It was up to her to decode my message and reply accordingly. Unfortunately, Sarah did not. She chose to take my list of groceries and only buy what she wanted for the week. She encoded to me that she wanted me to pay her back half of what she paid for the drinks she bought. I decoded the message and became very furious with her and decided to ignore her for the rest of the evening. Our communication was clearly unsuccessful because the meaning intended by me differed from that of Sarah’s. Our mental sets were so far apart that there was no shared feelings or thoughts.
The psychological model shows ways that both the sender and receiver can improve communication. It suggests that a sender should try to see things from the receivers’ point of view. It also explains that the sender should make themselves clear when decoding a message to receivers. In my interaction with my roommate, I could have sat down with her and together created some ground rules for the purchasing of food. We could have then made an agreement and signed a piece of paper to make sure that we both fully understood each other and what each other wanted. The receiver too can improve their communication by listening more carefully to the sender and ask questions if necessary to check their understanding. In this case, Sarah could have listened better to what I was asking of her and asked questions if she was confused. With these ways of improvement I would have found myself less aggravated and more satisfied.
“To understand communication, you need to understand the moves people use as they work out their relationship to one another.” (Trenholm 32). It is seen through the pragmatic model that the focus is on the action, what the sender and receiver are actually doing in response to each other’s messages. Sarah handed me a list of items she wanted. I understood that if I bought groceries, upon my return I would be paid back. Instead, Sarah offered to purchase the next set of groceries the following week instead of paying me back. I agreed. I handed Sarah a list of the things I wanted. I understood that she would return with what I requested her to buy. Sarah then went to the store and came back with only drinks, none of which I had wanted. She left me a note asking for money. It was clear to me that she obviously didn’t understand me and for that matter I certainly did not understand her. I then angrily went to the store, purchased what I wanted and ignored Sarah that evening. Every move each of us made affected each other’s actions. The end result of the interaction was upset.
Just like the psychological model has ways of improving communication, so does the pragmatic model. According to the pragmatic model, “the best way to understand and improve communication is to describe the forms or patterns that the communication takes.” (Trenholm 34). Taking a look at the communication patterns in my interaction with Sarah, I can conclude that our responses to one another were ineffective and intensified the problem. Both Sarah and I could have played the communication game better by working out a more effective set of moves that would make us both happy. Instead of focusing on each other’s personalities, the focus should have been on the actions that took place during the interaction. Sarah and I could have sat down and talked about each other’s understanding of the purchasing of food for our dorm and talked about what actions frustrated us. This kind of problem solving would also result in a happier ending, with both of us understanding one another.
While the psychological model deals with mental sets, encoding and decoding messages, and the noise level, the pragmatic model is concerned with what actions took place to cause the person’s involved upset and frustration. Although each has different focuses, both of these models share a common goal of improving communication. They both suggest understanding each other’s messages and figuring out ways to satisfy both persons involved. The psychological model and the pragmatic model both propose strong and useful ways of analyzing and improving interactions, but with this particular interaction, the psychological model does a better job of examining this problem and making improvements more successfully.
The interaction between Sarah and I can best be examined through the psychological model because it analyzed and improved our situation more thoroughly than the pragmatic model did. I thought it was best to purchase food and drinks if I was going to be paid back or promised free of charge on the next set of groceries. Sarah thought she wasn’t obligated to pay me back for groceries and then, charge me half of what she paid for the drinks. Although our messages back and forth seemed to be understood, they were not. We had different mindsets and our messages were perceived by one another differently. The psychological model helps to better understand the messages being sent and received. This model says that by understanding mindsets and messages clearly, one can improve communication. If Sarah and I had a better understanding of each other’s needs and wants and had come to an agreement on the purchasing of groceries, we possibly could have avoided this problematic interaction.
Though the psychological model is the most popular view of communication, it poses some problems. According to Trenholm, the psychological model ignores the social context in which communication occurs, it treats messages as if they were physical objects, and the only way for good communication to occur is if people can agree on ideas eventually. With all models, error is likely to occur and may cause malfunction in certain interactions, however, this model systematically helped me to improve my communication with my roommate by understanding her thoughts and massages. In the future, I plan on using the psychological model if I ever am faced with a problematic interaction that deals with the misunderstanding of messages, in order to demonstrate good communication.
__________________
Warning!!! This is just a sample Communication research paper (Communication research paper example) which cannot be used as your own paper. You can contact our custom research paper writing service which provides college and university students with high-quality custom written essays, term papers, research papers, thesis papers and dissertations on Communication topics.
Get professional Communication research paper writing help from our professional Ph.D. and Master's academic writers. A+ quality and 100% plagiarism are guaranteed! Feel free to ORDER A CUSTOM RESEARCH PAPER ON COMMUNICATION RIGHT NOW and you won't be disappointed.
Nonverbal Communication Essay
The definition of nonverbal communication can be as short or as elaborate and specific as one wants to make it. In general – the nonverbal communication describes any and all communication that occurs outside the realm of written or spoken words and is expressed by generation of either intentional or subconscious cues and their recognition. Commonly, nonverbal communication is divided into subcategories describing individual areas that transmit communication cues. These areas, among others, include kinesics, paralanguage, proxemics, haptics, oculesics, and physical appearance. Understanding and effective application of nonverbal communication skills is becoming increasingly important in the modern world of business for various reasons. The number of studies suggests that nonverbal cues have a significant effect on sales by creating a filter through which the following information is perceived (Leigh 1). Managers must also be efficient not only in understanding the dynamics of nonverbal communication by their employees, but also in determining how customers interpret the employees nonverbal cues (Sundram 2).
Types of Nonverbal Communication
The purpose of this report is to examine the significance of the nonverbal communication in the business setting. The topics discussed include: types of nonverbal communication, the importance of recognition and use of nonverbal communication elements, potential problems with nonverbal communication and solutions for effective nonverbal communication.
Kinesics, meaning - body movements, represents one of the largest areas of “ “leakage” – signals that escape from a deceptive interviewee despite his or her attempts at control.” (Waltman 1). One must realize, however, that “leakage” is not limited to interview subjects, but is natural human behavior (Waltman 1). In turn, torso movements, gestures and facial expressions are commonly viewed as the most important areas of kinesics in terms of generation of nonverbal cues that, when combined with other cues as well as context, suggest a meaning to what is being communicated (Sunduram 4). Ray L. Birdwhistell, in his research, also stresses that kinesic communication must be viewed in terms of “contextual meaning” (Jolly 6). Additional benefit of using “contextual meaning” in interpretation of nonverbal cues is realized when trying to read a skilled communicator (Jolly 6). Experienced presenters can control their facial expressions and eye contact to reduce or, perhaps, prevent altogether the amount of leakage (Waltman 3). Therefore, by analyzing the context as well as the separate cues, one is more likely to perceive the true picture. William Nolen, in his advice to the auditors, suggests that based on previous studies “synchronization of kinesic cues, such as rhythmic hand gesturing and head nods, heightens the perception of credibility. Synchronous displays are perceived as more competent, composed, trustworthy, extroverted, and sociable than dissynchronous displays” (Nollen 2-3).
In addition to general kinesics, oculesics – eye movement and behavior, is widely considered to be “single most powerful and persuasive way to gain attention and win approval” (Raudsepp 3). The behavior of a person’s eyes can either strengthen what is being communicated verbally, or diminish the importance or credibility of the subject. In American culture, a direct eye contact translates into confidence, competence and honesty (Raudsepp 3). On the contrary, in other cultures a direct eye contact with superiors may be considered as daring or disrespectful. Such cultural nuances are incredibly important in the modern global business environment, where many cultures, traditions and customs often existing side by side. Another important factors influencing eye contact are – relative heights of the people involved in the interaction and the distance between the individuals. The height gives the taller person a benefit of position of control or power and requires the shorter person to maintain eye contact because of the lack of power over the interaction. The proximity of interacting parties also tends to enhance the importance and intensity of the eye behavior simply because one is more aware of eye contact at closer range (Abrams 1).
Study of space as a part of nonverbal communication - referred to as proxemics – further analyses physical and psychological space between individuals in the interaction (Abrams 2). Proxemics could be divided into the elements of territory and personal space. Territory refers to the general area in which the interaction occurs, while personal space is just that – a space immediately around a person. (Nolen 5) One of the most important elements of proxemics is the study of haptics or – in more conventional terms - touch. According to various researches, touch “enhances one’s interpersonal involvement, positive affect, social attachment, intimacy, and overall liking” (Sundaram 7). “The persuasive power of touch is further evident in the findings of Patterson et al. (1968) stating that people tend to associate positive characteristics with the individual who touched them” (Sundaram 7). In case of proxemics, the “leakage cues” may or may not be obvious (Waltman 3). In a non-familiar business setting a person cannot do much to change the territory, however, smaller actions, such as shifting a chair or placing a briefcase on his or her lap, can suggest the true feeling or intentions of that person (Waltman 3).
Yet another important aspect of nonverbal communication is voice. Vocal characteristics of one’s speech – the paralanguage – that include volume, rate, pitch and pronunciation are one of the most crucial factors in contributing or reducing the speaker’s credibility. One of the most popular beliefs, which has been confirmed by various studies in communication, suggests that a loud, strong voice transmits confidence (Fatt 2). Combinations of various elements of the paralanguage are attributed to different styles of speech, and, thus, provoke different feelings and perceptions in listeners. According to one of the studies, the conversation style, which includes slower rate, lower pitch and volume and less inflection, presented the speaker as being trustworthy, pleasant and friendly. In the same study the public speaking style, which includes higher pitch, vocal intensity and inflection, was said to portray dominance, dynamism and competence (Sundaram 6).
The last aspect of nonverbal communication discussed in this research is physical appearance. Although, in the greater sense, attractiveness describes characteristics that go beyond the physical appearance alone (Gabbot 4), physically attractive people are perceived as “more persuasive (Chaiken, 1979), successful in changing attitudes (Kahle and Homer, 1985), and are perceived to be warmer, more poised, and more socially skilled than less attractive people (Chaiken, 1979)” (Sundaram 8). The way one dresses is also an important element of physical appearance as a source of nonverbal cues, in big part because a person has much more control over his or her clothes, as opposed to the features of the face or the body size. In the recent decade the business world in US has seen various degrees of acceptance of the business casual dress code either as an alternative or as an addition to the traditional business attire (McPherson 1-2).
The Importance of Recognition and Use of Nonverbal Communication Elements
Importance of effective recognition of the nonverbal cues is difficult to overestimate. According to popular scholarly beliefs, between 60 and 93 percent of the meaning in the interaction may be generated by the nonverbal aspects of communication (Leigh 2). Some break it down even further stating that “people respond to body language 55 percent of the time, tone of voice 38 percent of the time, and actual words a mere 7 percent” (Arthur 2). As business organizations and interactions become more and more complex, the room for error diminishes greatly and the difficulty of obtaining and maintaining the competitive edge become increasingly important. Areas of sales, consulting, auditing, investment banking and many others where primary business revolves around client interaction, information acquisition and analysis, and persuading individuals are the ones that must be extremely effective in nonverbal communication. For example, a sale manager communicating with a new client over the telephone can benefit from skillful utilization of paralanguage, because the initial call creates a base on which the future interaction and is built (Leigh 1). In the service industry, the recognition and acceptance of nonverbal communication can too benefit the employees as well as the business process in general. Customer satisfaction depends on more than just adequate execution of the service, it also includes the nonverbal context of what is being done or said. Managers who realize the significance of the nonverbal aspect of communication and effects it has on the success of the business interaction will be able to seek out individuals with better developed nonverbal communication skills and integrate them in the optimal position of the business process (Gabbot 9).
Potential Problems with Nonverbal Communication
In addition to the benefits of nonverbal communication, some problems exist as well. As the research suggests, little correlation exists between one’s self-rated accuracy of decoding of the nonverbal cues and the actual performance (DePaulo 239). Some individuals also tend to concentrate more on their strongest areas of nonverbal communication while neglecting the other aspects. As in the example presented by Diane Arthur, the kinesic cues, contradictory to other verbal and nonverbal behavior, significantly undermined the credibility and effectiveness of the presenter (Arthur 2). Another problem area within the realm of nonverbal communication is the ambiguity of generated and transmitted cues. Since the appropriate meaning and interpretation of nonverbal cues are highly contextual in nature, the same gestures, facial expressions or posture can and do mean different things in different interaction environment and settings. Often, perceivers tend to venture farther than available context allows and interpret the signals according to their mental map, or to put it in other word - their previous knowledge, experience, stereotypes and others perceptual filters. Problem is further escalated due to the natural tendency of humans to be overly confident of the purely subjective judgments reached according personally-relevant information (Druckman 178). This idea develops into yet another obstacle in the interpretation of body language. Differences in cultural backgrounds of those involved in the interaction may interfere with correct decoding the encoded message. Most common cultural differences would probably be in kinesics. For example, a nod in the United States, as well as in many other cultures, signifies understanding or agreement. However, in the Middle East, a single nod represents disagreement or rejection (Arthur 2). Similarly, other commonly used gestures or other aspects of nonverbal communication may have completely different meanings in various cultures. With this said, one must realize that the term culture does not refer to the various ethnic and geographical groups exclusively. Culture can describe anything from sex to interorganizational culture. Therefore, in order to correctly decode the nonverbal cues one must not only analyze the ones that are relative to the context of what is being communicated, but also to attempt to interpret them in light of the decoder’s cultural background. The task of understanding nonverbal cues clearly is extremely complex and misunderstandings are common.
Solutions for Effective Nonverbal Communication
At least partial solutions to the problems of nonverbal communication can and should be implemented in the business organizations of today through training, analysis and practice. Managers, as the trained professionals and business leaders are responsible for the training and, partially, for analysis aspects of the solution. In addition, each individual is responsible for continuing analysis and practice of his or her nonverbal skills. The managers can aid the employees and coworkers by explaining and ensuring that the employees understand the significance of nonverbal side of communication process. Initially training seminars or classes should be offered to everybody and later readily available for anyone who needs them. Constant feedback is also crucial to ensure continuous learning and analysis process (Sundaram 12). William Nolen cites examples of George Patton and Richard Nixon practicing their facial expressions in order to appear more determined or trustworthy. They realized the importance of nonverbal communication in portraying the desired image. Not unlike U.S. General and U.S. President, today’s business people must portray a number of images depending on the situation and their field (Nolen 1). Therefore, one must not only understand the importance of nonverbal communication and be able to recognize them, but also to be continuously improving one’s own nonverbal behavior.
Conclusion
From the information presented, the importance of the nonverbal communication in modern business is obvious. The fact that a great number of successful CEOs, auditors and sales people refer to psychology of human behavior as one of the most useful non-business skill they posses demonstrates the vitality of using such skill appropriately and effectively. Employees empowered by this analytical tool are more likely to accomplish better results, avoid unnecessary confusion which may result in delays, sell the product or close an important deal simply because they are one step ahead of the game. Companies as a whole can create a corporate structure that conforms to the company’s business model and promotes it via the employees into the markets. Although, some aspects of the nonverbal communication still lack sufficient empirical research to be interpreted conclusively, its benefits obviously can and should be utilized as much as possible on various levels of modern business environment. It could be as beneficial on the micro level – the individual’s self analysis and continuous improvement of his hand gestures during presentations – for example, as it could be on the greater scale, perhaps – the development of corporate image through the marketing campaign.
_________________________________
Warning!!! This is just a sample Nonverbal Communication essay (Nonverbal Communication essay example) which cannot be used as your own paper. You can contact our custom essay writing service which provides college and university students with high-quality custom written essays, term papers, research papers, thesis papers and dissertations on Nonverbal Communication topics.
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Types of Nonverbal Communication
The purpose of this report is to examine the significance of the nonverbal communication in the business setting. The topics discussed include: types of nonverbal communication, the importance of recognition and use of nonverbal communication elements, potential problems with nonverbal communication and solutions for effective nonverbal communication.
Kinesics, meaning - body movements, represents one of the largest areas of “ “leakage” – signals that escape from a deceptive interviewee despite his or her attempts at control.” (Waltman 1). One must realize, however, that “leakage” is not limited to interview subjects, but is natural human behavior (Waltman 1). In turn, torso movements, gestures and facial expressions are commonly viewed as the most important areas of kinesics in terms of generation of nonverbal cues that, when combined with other cues as well as context, suggest a meaning to what is being communicated (Sunduram 4). Ray L. Birdwhistell, in his research, also stresses that kinesic communication must be viewed in terms of “contextual meaning” (Jolly 6). Additional benefit of using “contextual meaning” in interpretation of nonverbal cues is realized when trying to read a skilled communicator (Jolly 6). Experienced presenters can control their facial expressions and eye contact to reduce or, perhaps, prevent altogether the amount of leakage (Waltman 3). Therefore, by analyzing the context as well as the separate cues, one is more likely to perceive the true picture. William Nolen, in his advice to the auditors, suggests that based on previous studies “synchronization of kinesic cues, such as rhythmic hand gesturing and head nods, heightens the perception of credibility. Synchronous displays are perceived as more competent, composed, trustworthy, extroverted, and sociable than dissynchronous displays” (Nollen 2-3).
In addition to general kinesics, oculesics – eye movement and behavior, is widely considered to be “single most powerful and persuasive way to gain attention and win approval” (Raudsepp 3). The behavior of a person’s eyes can either strengthen what is being communicated verbally, or diminish the importance or credibility of the subject. In American culture, a direct eye contact translates into confidence, competence and honesty (Raudsepp 3). On the contrary, in other cultures a direct eye contact with superiors may be considered as daring or disrespectful. Such cultural nuances are incredibly important in the modern global business environment, where many cultures, traditions and customs often existing side by side. Another important factors influencing eye contact are – relative heights of the people involved in the interaction and the distance between the individuals. The height gives the taller person a benefit of position of control or power and requires the shorter person to maintain eye contact because of the lack of power over the interaction. The proximity of interacting parties also tends to enhance the importance and intensity of the eye behavior simply because one is more aware of eye contact at closer range (Abrams 1).
Study of space as a part of nonverbal communication - referred to as proxemics – further analyses physical and psychological space between individuals in the interaction (Abrams 2). Proxemics could be divided into the elements of territory and personal space. Territory refers to the general area in which the interaction occurs, while personal space is just that – a space immediately around a person. (Nolen 5) One of the most important elements of proxemics is the study of haptics or – in more conventional terms - touch. According to various researches, touch “enhances one’s interpersonal involvement, positive affect, social attachment, intimacy, and overall liking” (Sundaram 7). “The persuasive power of touch is further evident in the findings of Patterson et al. (1968) stating that people tend to associate positive characteristics with the individual who touched them” (Sundaram 7). In case of proxemics, the “leakage cues” may or may not be obvious (Waltman 3). In a non-familiar business setting a person cannot do much to change the territory, however, smaller actions, such as shifting a chair or placing a briefcase on his or her lap, can suggest the true feeling or intentions of that person (Waltman 3).
Yet another important aspect of nonverbal communication is voice. Vocal characteristics of one’s speech – the paralanguage – that include volume, rate, pitch and pronunciation are one of the most crucial factors in contributing or reducing the speaker’s credibility. One of the most popular beliefs, which has been confirmed by various studies in communication, suggests that a loud, strong voice transmits confidence (Fatt 2). Combinations of various elements of the paralanguage are attributed to different styles of speech, and, thus, provoke different feelings and perceptions in listeners. According to one of the studies, the conversation style, which includes slower rate, lower pitch and volume and less inflection, presented the speaker as being trustworthy, pleasant and friendly. In the same study the public speaking style, which includes higher pitch, vocal intensity and inflection, was said to portray dominance, dynamism and competence (Sundaram 6).
The last aspect of nonverbal communication discussed in this research is physical appearance. Although, in the greater sense, attractiveness describes characteristics that go beyond the physical appearance alone (Gabbot 4), physically attractive people are perceived as “more persuasive (Chaiken, 1979), successful in changing attitudes (Kahle and Homer, 1985), and are perceived to be warmer, more poised, and more socially skilled than less attractive people (Chaiken, 1979)” (Sundaram 8). The way one dresses is also an important element of physical appearance as a source of nonverbal cues, in big part because a person has much more control over his or her clothes, as opposed to the features of the face or the body size. In the recent decade the business world in US has seen various degrees of acceptance of the business casual dress code either as an alternative or as an addition to the traditional business attire (McPherson 1-2).
The Importance of Recognition and Use of Nonverbal Communication Elements
Importance of effective recognition of the nonverbal cues is difficult to overestimate. According to popular scholarly beliefs, between 60 and 93 percent of the meaning in the interaction may be generated by the nonverbal aspects of communication (Leigh 2). Some break it down even further stating that “people respond to body language 55 percent of the time, tone of voice 38 percent of the time, and actual words a mere 7 percent” (Arthur 2). As business organizations and interactions become more and more complex, the room for error diminishes greatly and the difficulty of obtaining and maintaining the competitive edge become increasingly important. Areas of sales, consulting, auditing, investment banking and many others where primary business revolves around client interaction, information acquisition and analysis, and persuading individuals are the ones that must be extremely effective in nonverbal communication. For example, a sale manager communicating with a new client over the telephone can benefit from skillful utilization of paralanguage, because the initial call creates a base on which the future interaction and is built (Leigh 1). In the service industry, the recognition and acceptance of nonverbal communication can too benefit the employees as well as the business process in general. Customer satisfaction depends on more than just adequate execution of the service, it also includes the nonverbal context of what is being done or said. Managers who realize the significance of the nonverbal aspect of communication and effects it has on the success of the business interaction will be able to seek out individuals with better developed nonverbal communication skills and integrate them in the optimal position of the business process (Gabbot 9).
Potential Problems with Nonverbal Communication
In addition to the benefits of nonverbal communication, some problems exist as well. As the research suggests, little correlation exists between one’s self-rated accuracy of decoding of the nonverbal cues and the actual performance (DePaulo 239). Some individuals also tend to concentrate more on their strongest areas of nonverbal communication while neglecting the other aspects. As in the example presented by Diane Arthur, the kinesic cues, contradictory to other verbal and nonverbal behavior, significantly undermined the credibility and effectiveness of the presenter (Arthur 2). Another problem area within the realm of nonverbal communication is the ambiguity of generated and transmitted cues. Since the appropriate meaning and interpretation of nonverbal cues are highly contextual in nature, the same gestures, facial expressions or posture can and do mean different things in different interaction environment and settings. Often, perceivers tend to venture farther than available context allows and interpret the signals according to their mental map, or to put it in other word - their previous knowledge, experience, stereotypes and others perceptual filters. Problem is further escalated due to the natural tendency of humans to be overly confident of the purely subjective judgments reached according personally-relevant information (Druckman 178). This idea develops into yet another obstacle in the interpretation of body language. Differences in cultural backgrounds of those involved in the interaction may interfere with correct decoding the encoded message. Most common cultural differences would probably be in kinesics. For example, a nod in the United States, as well as in many other cultures, signifies understanding or agreement. However, in the Middle East, a single nod represents disagreement or rejection (Arthur 2). Similarly, other commonly used gestures or other aspects of nonverbal communication may have completely different meanings in various cultures. With this said, one must realize that the term culture does not refer to the various ethnic and geographical groups exclusively. Culture can describe anything from sex to interorganizational culture. Therefore, in order to correctly decode the nonverbal cues one must not only analyze the ones that are relative to the context of what is being communicated, but also to attempt to interpret them in light of the decoder’s cultural background. The task of understanding nonverbal cues clearly is extremely complex and misunderstandings are common.
Solutions for Effective Nonverbal Communication
At least partial solutions to the problems of nonverbal communication can and should be implemented in the business organizations of today through training, analysis and practice. Managers, as the trained professionals and business leaders are responsible for the training and, partially, for analysis aspects of the solution. In addition, each individual is responsible for continuing analysis and practice of his or her nonverbal skills. The managers can aid the employees and coworkers by explaining and ensuring that the employees understand the significance of nonverbal side of communication process. Initially training seminars or classes should be offered to everybody and later readily available for anyone who needs them. Constant feedback is also crucial to ensure continuous learning and analysis process (Sundaram 12). William Nolen cites examples of George Patton and Richard Nixon practicing their facial expressions in order to appear more determined or trustworthy. They realized the importance of nonverbal communication in portraying the desired image. Not unlike U.S. General and U.S. President, today’s business people must portray a number of images depending on the situation and their field (Nolen 1). Therefore, one must not only understand the importance of nonverbal communication and be able to recognize them, but also to be continuously improving one’s own nonverbal behavior.
Conclusion
From the information presented, the importance of the nonverbal communication in modern business is obvious. The fact that a great number of successful CEOs, auditors and sales people refer to psychology of human behavior as one of the most useful non-business skill they posses demonstrates the vitality of using such skill appropriately and effectively. Employees empowered by this analytical tool are more likely to accomplish better results, avoid unnecessary confusion which may result in delays, sell the product or close an important deal simply because they are one step ahead of the game. Companies as a whole can create a corporate structure that conforms to the company’s business model and promotes it via the employees into the markets. Although, some aspects of the nonverbal communication still lack sufficient empirical research to be interpreted conclusively, its benefits obviously can and should be utilized as much as possible on various levels of modern business environment. It could be as beneficial on the micro level – the individual’s self analysis and continuous improvement of his hand gestures during presentations – for example, as it could be on the greater scale, perhaps – the development of corporate image through the marketing campaign.
_________________________________
Warning!!! This is just a sample Nonverbal Communication essay (Nonverbal Communication essay example) which cannot be used as your own paper. You can contact our custom essay writing service which provides college and university students with high-quality custom written essays, term papers, research papers, thesis papers and dissertations on Nonverbal Communication topics.
Get professional Nonverbal Communication essay writing help from our professional Ph.D. and Master's academic writers. A+ quality and 100% plagiarism are guaranteed! Feel free to ORDER A CUSTOM ESSAY ON NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION RIGHT NOW and you won't be disappointed.
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