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Wednesday, August 12, 2009
APA Format Dissertation
APA (American Psychological Association) format is a world-widely accepted citation style of documentation, especially in the social sciences. In general, APA format (APA style) clearly specifies the names and order of headings, formatting, and organization of references and citations, and the arrangement of figures, tables, appendices, and footnotes as well as other documentation and manuscript features. APA format is a very popular citation style in education. Students from all over the world write academic papers (essays, term papers, research papers, theses and dissertations) in this format. Particularly APA format is the most suitable for writing dissertations for Undergraduate, Master's and Ph.D. academic degrees.
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Tuesday, August 11, 2009
Custom Essay Writing
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Buddhism Essay
Buddhism is one the most popular and interesting religions. It can be traced back to 563 B.C.E. with the birth of Siddhartha Guatama, who is more commonly known as the Buddha, or the Awakened One. The story of Siddhartha Guatama and how he came to be known as the Buddha is very interesting. The religion of Buddhism is one of the oldest and most significant, which is why I chose to visit the Byodo-In Buddhist Temple in the Valley of the Temples on the windward side of the Ko’olau mountain range.
When I first arrived at the Buddhist Temple in the Valley of the Temples, the first thing I took notice of was the graveyard. The tombstones were very elegant. Most of the tombstones were black in color and had gold inscriptions. The black color is representing death while the gold color signifies purity.
The first experience I had at the temple was ringing the bell. The bell alone was amazing. It is a replica of the original temple bell. It is a five foot, three ton brass Peace Bell. When rung its sound is very low in pitch, and can be heard from a good distance away. The sound sends a message of peace, calamity, and spiritual cleansing. Ringing the bell to announce your arrival is said to bring good fortune, and cleanses the mind of evil and temptation.
From the bell, I then toured the main building which is called Phoenix Hall. The structure was designed after the mystical bird with its wings held up by pillars of stone. The Japanese believed that the temple reflects the promise of the mystical bird, and the recreation of spiritual hope and renewal. Inside of the Phoenix Hall was a nine foot two inch tall statue of Amida (the Buddha of the Western Paradise). The statue is the largest wooden Buddha carved in over nine hundred years and is covered in gold and lacquer. Directly in front of the giant Buddha is a small shrine where visitors can light a stick of incense.
After touring Phoenix Hall, I took notice of the detailed landscaping. In front of the main structure is a very large rock garden. The gardens are said to retain the serenity and grace of a Japanese garden and have an added touch of joy and the Hawaiian “spirit of aloha.” The gardens are believed to be the largest outside of Japan. Around the detailed Japanese gardens is a two acre pond. The pond contains several thousand carp. In Japan they are known as koi. The koi are a symbol of order and perseverance in the Buddhist culture. Visitors of the temple are encouraged to feed the koi. The temple also has many peacocks that wander in and around the temple. The temple advises not to interact with the peacocks, because they are wild and untamed.
Located behind and to the left of Phoenix Hall is the meditation house. The house is known to be a place of serenity, private thoughts, and inner peace. To the right of Phoenix Hall is the Tea House. In the Tea House you can purchase souvenirs of the temple.
The Byodo-in temple was completed and dedicated in 1968 to coincide with the 100th anniversary of the first Japanese Immigrants to arrive in Hawaii. It was constructed without the use of nails. It is a scale replica of a temple constructed over 900 years ago in Uji Japan, which was the villa of Japanese aristocrat. The structure was part of a larger compound with many more buildings. Years later, after social and political upheaval, the villa was abandoned. It was preserved as a masterpiece of 11th century architecture and is revered today as on of Japan’s national treasures. The Byodo-in Temple was planned with the input and assistance of the Hawaiian Buddhist community.
Buddhism is one of the world’s oldest religions. It was conceived in India by the birth of Siddhartha Guatama. Siddhartha Guatama was born the son of a prince. The story tells that his mother, Maya, had a dream of a white elephant entering her side. This is believed to be the conception of the Buddha. He was born from his mother’s side, who died one week after delivery. This led him to be raised by his aunt. There was said to be special marks on his body which told the two possible directions his life would end up. One direction was following his father’s footsteps in becoming a “world ruler,” or he would become a “world teacher.” He was raised to become his father’s successor. He married at an early age and had one son. At the age of 29, Siddhartha saw what is now known as the four passing sights. He saw an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a sannyasin (wandering holy man). This led to the Great Going Forth, which was Siddhartha Guatama escaping from his home and denouncing everything he owned. He traveled around searching for answers from his many teachers. During this time he decided to purify himself by living on very little food, water, and sleep. After collapsing from malnutrition, he decided to adopt a path of moderation. One day he sat under a Bodhi tree where he meditated for a length of time. At the end of his meditation, he reached a state of enlightenment. This caused his name to change to Buddha –the enlightened one.
In the Buddhist religion there are many beliefs. One that is expressed is the three marks of reality. These three beliefs are constant change, a lack of permanent identity, and the existence of suffering. These views are believed to help reach inner peace. From the three marks of reality, comes the belief in the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. The First Noble Truth is to live is to suffer, the second is suffering comes from desire, the next is to end suffering, end desire, and the last is release from suffering is possible and can be attained by following the Noble Eightfold Path. The Noble Eightfold Path is Buddha’s teachings to attain inner peace. Each of the eight steps should be practiced simultaneously to reach liberation. The eight steps are the right understanding, the right intention, the right speech, the right action, the right work, the right effort, the right meditation, and the right contemplation.
Similar to many religions, Buddhism branched out into three teachings. The Theravada Buddhists believed in reaching nirvana by detachment and ending desire. Theravada Buddhism is the way of the elders. The Theravadas are a monastic community who believe in the ideal of the arhat, the perfect being, someone who has attained nirvana. The Theravada teachings are based on the Tripitaka, which means three baskets. The first collection of teachings is called the sutra, which contain sermons and dialogues. The second teaching is called vinaya, they consist of proper procedures for the rules of monastic life. The third collection is called abhidhamma which means the works that go beyond the elementary teachings.
The second school of thought is Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana is referred to as the “Big Vehicle.” The vision of Mahayana is broader than that of the Theravadas. The Mahayana teachings are more general and apply to a greater amount of people. The Mahayana teachings believe in the trikaya (three-body) doctrine. They are the Dharmakaya (cosmic Buddha nature), the Nirmanakaya (historical Buddha), and the Sambhogakaya (celestial Buddha).
Vajrayana Buddhism is the third branch of teachings. Its meaning is translated as the “Diamond Vehicle,” or “vehicle of the lightning bolt.” Vajrayana teachings believe in the acquisition of special powers through certain rituals. Because of its unique beliefs it is known as the third branch, however some view it as a form of Mahayana.
__________________
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When I first arrived at the Buddhist Temple in the Valley of the Temples, the first thing I took notice of was the graveyard. The tombstones were very elegant. Most of the tombstones were black in color and had gold inscriptions. The black color is representing death while the gold color signifies purity.
The first experience I had at the temple was ringing the bell. The bell alone was amazing. It is a replica of the original temple bell. It is a five foot, three ton brass Peace Bell. When rung its sound is very low in pitch, and can be heard from a good distance away. The sound sends a message of peace, calamity, and spiritual cleansing. Ringing the bell to announce your arrival is said to bring good fortune, and cleanses the mind of evil and temptation.
From the bell, I then toured the main building which is called Phoenix Hall. The structure was designed after the mystical bird with its wings held up by pillars of stone. The Japanese believed that the temple reflects the promise of the mystical bird, and the recreation of spiritual hope and renewal. Inside of the Phoenix Hall was a nine foot two inch tall statue of Amida (the Buddha of the Western Paradise). The statue is the largest wooden Buddha carved in over nine hundred years and is covered in gold and lacquer. Directly in front of the giant Buddha is a small shrine where visitors can light a stick of incense.
After touring Phoenix Hall, I took notice of the detailed landscaping. In front of the main structure is a very large rock garden. The gardens are said to retain the serenity and grace of a Japanese garden and have an added touch of joy and the Hawaiian “spirit of aloha.” The gardens are believed to be the largest outside of Japan. Around the detailed Japanese gardens is a two acre pond. The pond contains several thousand carp. In Japan they are known as koi. The koi are a symbol of order and perseverance in the Buddhist culture. Visitors of the temple are encouraged to feed the koi. The temple also has many peacocks that wander in and around the temple. The temple advises not to interact with the peacocks, because they are wild and untamed.
Located behind and to the left of Phoenix Hall is the meditation house. The house is known to be a place of serenity, private thoughts, and inner peace. To the right of Phoenix Hall is the Tea House. In the Tea House you can purchase souvenirs of the temple.
The Byodo-in temple was completed and dedicated in 1968 to coincide with the 100th anniversary of the first Japanese Immigrants to arrive in Hawaii. It was constructed without the use of nails. It is a scale replica of a temple constructed over 900 years ago in Uji Japan, which was the villa of Japanese aristocrat. The structure was part of a larger compound with many more buildings. Years later, after social and political upheaval, the villa was abandoned. It was preserved as a masterpiece of 11th century architecture and is revered today as on of Japan’s national treasures. The Byodo-in Temple was planned with the input and assistance of the Hawaiian Buddhist community.
Buddhism is one of the world’s oldest religions. It was conceived in India by the birth of Siddhartha Guatama. Siddhartha Guatama was born the son of a prince. The story tells that his mother, Maya, had a dream of a white elephant entering her side. This is believed to be the conception of the Buddha. He was born from his mother’s side, who died one week after delivery. This led him to be raised by his aunt. There was said to be special marks on his body which told the two possible directions his life would end up. One direction was following his father’s footsteps in becoming a “world ruler,” or he would become a “world teacher.” He was raised to become his father’s successor. He married at an early age and had one son. At the age of 29, Siddhartha saw what is now known as the four passing sights. He saw an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a sannyasin (wandering holy man). This led to the Great Going Forth, which was Siddhartha Guatama escaping from his home and denouncing everything he owned. He traveled around searching for answers from his many teachers. During this time he decided to purify himself by living on very little food, water, and sleep. After collapsing from malnutrition, he decided to adopt a path of moderation. One day he sat under a Bodhi tree where he meditated for a length of time. At the end of his meditation, he reached a state of enlightenment. This caused his name to change to Buddha –the enlightened one.
In the Buddhist religion there are many beliefs. One that is expressed is the three marks of reality. These three beliefs are constant change, a lack of permanent identity, and the existence of suffering. These views are believed to help reach inner peace. From the three marks of reality, comes the belief in the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. The First Noble Truth is to live is to suffer, the second is suffering comes from desire, the next is to end suffering, end desire, and the last is release from suffering is possible and can be attained by following the Noble Eightfold Path. The Noble Eightfold Path is Buddha’s teachings to attain inner peace. Each of the eight steps should be practiced simultaneously to reach liberation. The eight steps are the right understanding, the right intention, the right speech, the right action, the right work, the right effort, the right meditation, and the right contemplation.
Similar to many religions, Buddhism branched out into three teachings. The Theravada Buddhists believed in reaching nirvana by detachment and ending desire. Theravada Buddhism is the way of the elders. The Theravadas are a monastic community who believe in the ideal of the arhat, the perfect being, someone who has attained nirvana. The Theravada teachings are based on the Tripitaka, which means three baskets. The first collection of teachings is called the sutra, which contain sermons and dialogues. The second teaching is called vinaya, they consist of proper procedures for the rules of monastic life. The third collection is called abhidhamma which means the works that go beyond the elementary teachings.
The second school of thought is Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana is referred to as the “Big Vehicle.” The vision of Mahayana is broader than that of the Theravadas. The Mahayana teachings are more general and apply to a greater amount of people. The Mahayana teachings believe in the trikaya (three-body) doctrine. They are the Dharmakaya (cosmic Buddha nature), the Nirmanakaya (historical Buddha), and the Sambhogakaya (celestial Buddha).
Vajrayana Buddhism is the third branch of teachings. Its meaning is translated as the “Diamond Vehicle,” or “vehicle of the lightning bolt.” Vajrayana teachings believe in the acquisition of special powers through certain rituals. Because of its unique beliefs it is known as the third branch, however some view it as a form of Mahayana.
__________________
Warning!!! This is just a sample Buddhism essay (Buddhism essay example) writing service which provides college and university students with high-quality custom written essays, term papers, research papers, thesis papers and dissertations on Buddhism topics.
Get professional Buddhism essay writing help from our professional Ph.D. and Master's academic writers. A+ quality and 100% plagiarism are guaranteed! Feel free to ORDER A CUSTOM ESSAY ON BUDDHISM RIGHT NOW and you won't be disappointed.
Monday, August 3, 2009
Time Travel Research Paper
Introduction
Time Travel has always struck close to people imagination from H.G Wells “The Time Machine“to a blockbuster like “Back to The Future”. Physicists approach the subject of Time Travel carefully for fear of ridicule, although it is a legitimate field of scientific endeavor. There have been many new advances in Physics that have opened the door to the possibility of Time Travel. This paper discusses the possibility of Time Travel research as well as the bringing credibility to it.
Time Travel Ridiculed
Many Physicists laugh at the idea of time travel saying it’s preposterous. Despite this there is a growing number of Physicists that have a revolutionary new way of looking at the problem of Time Travel, not ruling it out because of many of their professors labeling the field as a joke. Today’s Science-Fiction is tomorrows Science Fact, that’s how fast our knowledge of the universe is expanding many things that were thought as impossible before now are common knowledge. It is the urge for knowledge that helps humans overcome every problem and by automatically shutting out an idea because of their personal beliefs is not only unscientific it’s also against every value that humans set to be true.
Science fiction
Writers and Hollywood have in a way brought Time Travel to life, but at the same time they are also responsible for making it seem like a ridiculous idea as well. There have been numerous movies and books that have brought light to the possibility of time travel. The problem of the way time travel is perceived on TV is that humans are not meant to play around with those forces. There are numerous moral and religious reasons that oppose the idea of time travel: you are in a way playing god, the damage that could possibly be cause by cruel intentions of people, and the unknown results of what could happen if you interfered with events in the past to name just a few. A lot of the movies about Time Travel though light a fire of desire in humans to want to conquer the unreachable.
Einstein’s Beliefs
One of this century greatest minds is responsible for giving us so much, has also given us much of the new technology now possible because of his work. Einstein’s theories of gravity and of relativity shook the foundation and literally removed the ground underneath Physics, and set up a new and more firm one from which to start anew. Scientist closely looking at Einstein’s new theories saw new possibilities by knowing that object with a huge amount of mass actually bent space and intern time. Because as Einstein discovered that space and time were interconnected he called the idea space-time. Putting the idea that is space-time could be manipulated like the way a star does then intern time itself is being Manipulated. These ideas soon came to Einstein’s attention, and he quickly criticized such beliefs as ridiculous. Little did Einstein know just how much he had opened the gate for an enormous amount of new ideas. His theories also gave birth to Quantum physics which is ruled by the uncertainty principle. The uncertainty principal paints the world in mystery and paints a picture of the universe that is obscure and uncertain; this disgusted Einstein for which he responded by saying “god does not play dice with the world” he saw the universe as one of order not one full of chaos. Einstein being one of the fathers of the factual Idea of Time Travel was also one of its biggest critics. This in a sense killed the idea for a while, for how could Einstein be mistaken.
Moral Problems
Mention the idea of Time Travel and the fist thing to pop in peoples head it that it impossible. The main reason for that is God would not allow it. Time Travel has been seen as something that in a way is evil for that fact that people think that only god himself can look in the future and the past can never be changed because it is gods will, Our own conviction for religion is also our downfall because many people are not willing to put their religious thought aside and thing of the possible betterment to the human species by the advent of time travel. How easy it would be for us to remove a dictator or a mass murderer from being born and in turn save many innocent lives. Many critics have come up with the answer that it was gods will for that to happen and they come to accept that outcome. How can humans after coming so far just accept it was gods will as a legitimate answer?
Brought Back From The Ashes
In the recent years there have been many new exciting discoveries, as well as new theories that have brought the field of Time Travel back from the ashes, where it once laid. Now you ask most Physicist about time travel and most will answer it’s possible, but improbable. Well, let’s get into what exactly what notion brought Time Travel back from the ashes.
New Discoveries
Against Einstein’s own instinct and beliefs one of the ideas brought forward by Einstein’s theory of gravity is that if you put a massive enough object in space it would bend space so much that it could even create a tear in space-time, this is known as a black hole. When Einstein heard of this idea he renounced it saying again something in nature would keep that amount of mass from being in the same place. We now know that when a star dies if it has a given amount of mass to begin with, as it begins to die, gravity will do its job squeezing the star tighter and tighter making it more massive and more massive till it forms a black hole. We have found these phenomena which many people thought to be impossible to exist in nature [1]. We cannot see them directly but in a way we can see the way other thing around it reacts because of their presence. The idea of space being able to be warped is where the idea of Time Travel becomes possible.
Public Interest
Public interest in the subject of Time Travel has increased a lot, since seeing the benefits in it. How many people would like to have their loved ones returned due to crime prevention information provided by knowing what’s going on in the future. This will surely be a very welcomed use for Time Travel. Even with all the good things that would come from the prospect of Time Travel there also come the concerns of misuse. What could keep a person from getting future information and using it to make a fortune and possibly putting himself in position of power, or from killing someone with information learned from the future? As with everything else in life there are always risks that come along, as well as benefits, but what the public must do is weight the pros and cons.
Science Behind Time Travel
People hear Science behind Time Travel and automatically think I’m not a rocket scientist, “I can’t understand that.” The Science behind that is actually quite simple to understand. The laws behind Time Travel themselves can be understood by a ten year old.
Laws of Physics
The most famous of all equations E=mc^2 is one of the equations being used against the idea of faster than light travel, which is needed in order to travel forward in time. Let me explain something, the closer you get to the speed of light the slower time moves for you in comparison to someone that is not moving at all. So if one was to move at the speed of light or even faster one would in fact be going forward in time how far ahead depends on how much faster you go over the speed of light. The problem with Einstein’s theory of relativity is that one cannot travel at the speed of light, due to the fact that the faster you go the more energy you need and the closer you get to the speed of light the more massive you get and in turn you need more energy until the amount of energy and your mass itself becomes infinite. As we all know there is no known source of infinite energy so in actuality it is impossible to travel faster than light conventionally. This is where the human ingenuity comes in as we discussed space is curved and bent by gravity (figure1). So if we were to manipulate gravity to an extent that we can bend space to our advantage then faster than light travel is possible. Let me explain, speed is a measurement of distance over time. This simple measurement is the key to faster than light travel. So you are traveling from point (A) to point (B) you take the distance from point (A) to point (B) 100,000 miles and it takes you 10 hours to travel that distance well your speed is 10,000 mph. So what does this have to do with the fact that gravity bends space well what would happen if you took that distance and bent the space between them you could in fact then take a shortcut between the two point (figure2). The way that works is you are in fact still traveling the same distance but since you are taking a shortcut then you will take less time to get to your destination . So if you travel a distance 200,000 miles and traveled them in a second then you are in fact traveling at a speed of 200,000 mps which is faster than light, your speed then would be determined by the amount you bend space around you . There is also a thought that there are rear anomalies in space called worm hole which are two black holes in two separate points in space that are interconnected (figure3). Therefore allowing travel to another region of space instantaneously and in that manner you have virtually gone back in time to another region of space. NASA has done several experiments with clocks on earth and one on the space shuttle going to space upon the return of the shuttle the clocks were slightly off. Were you to speed up the shuttle to the speed of light the difference in the two clocks would grow to be enormous, showing that time does slow down the closer you get to the speed of light[2].
Physicist Thoughts
Many Physicist look at these ideas as ones that are feasible and will be achievable within a reasonable amount of time given the time and money to develop the ideas. But there are more things keeping these ideas from surfacing, mainly the fear of ridicule for those seriously pursuing these problems. Even now in the 21st century there is in a sense a witch hunt for physicist researching these types of subjects and they are labeled as fools. Weren’t Galileo, Newton, and even Einstein seen the same way when they first introduced their ideas to the world? Physicist now should open their eyes to all possibilities, because from these men will rise the next Einstein or Hawkings, two of the worlds brightest minds. Like all ideas in the past any new idea will face ridicule and even dismissal from having any scientific ground but it is important to still pursue these problems and not let them die.
Conclusion
With the information that is provided in this research paper I hope that I have at least peaked your interest and I hope you would agree that Time Travel in fact does have some scientific merit and is not just some childhood dream. I know that you will agree with me when I say that this subject burns in the minds of all Americans, as well as bring fear into the idea. There are many problems still with the idea of Time Travel, but in the future I believe that these problems will be solved and we will have to ask ourselves the question if we believe we should developed this technology to the betterment of man kind. I hope that in the near future Time Travel will become an accepted field in the eyes of all physicists.
__________________
Warning!!! This is just a sample Time Travel research paper (Time Travel research paper example) which cannot be used as your own paper. You can contact our custom research paper writing service which provides college and university students with high-quality custom written essays, term papers, research papers, thesis papers and dissertations on Time Travel topics.
Get professional Time Travel research paper writing help from our professional Ph.D. and Master's academic writers. A+ quality and 100% plagiarism are guaranteed! Feel free to ORDER A CUSTOM RESEARCH PAPER ON TIME TRAVEL RIGHT NOW and you won't be disappointed.
Time Travel has always struck close to people imagination from H.G Wells “The Time Machine“to a blockbuster like “Back to The Future”. Physicists approach the subject of Time Travel carefully for fear of ridicule, although it is a legitimate field of scientific endeavor. There have been many new advances in Physics that have opened the door to the possibility of Time Travel. This paper discusses the possibility of Time Travel research as well as the bringing credibility to it.
Time Travel Ridiculed
Many Physicists laugh at the idea of time travel saying it’s preposterous. Despite this there is a growing number of Physicists that have a revolutionary new way of looking at the problem of Time Travel, not ruling it out because of many of their professors labeling the field as a joke. Today’s Science-Fiction is tomorrows Science Fact, that’s how fast our knowledge of the universe is expanding many things that were thought as impossible before now are common knowledge. It is the urge for knowledge that helps humans overcome every problem and by automatically shutting out an idea because of their personal beliefs is not only unscientific it’s also against every value that humans set to be true.
Science fiction
Writers and Hollywood have in a way brought Time Travel to life, but at the same time they are also responsible for making it seem like a ridiculous idea as well. There have been numerous movies and books that have brought light to the possibility of time travel. The problem of the way time travel is perceived on TV is that humans are not meant to play around with those forces. There are numerous moral and religious reasons that oppose the idea of time travel: you are in a way playing god, the damage that could possibly be cause by cruel intentions of people, and the unknown results of what could happen if you interfered with events in the past to name just a few. A lot of the movies about Time Travel though light a fire of desire in humans to want to conquer the unreachable.
Einstein’s Beliefs
One of this century greatest minds is responsible for giving us so much, has also given us much of the new technology now possible because of his work. Einstein’s theories of gravity and of relativity shook the foundation and literally removed the ground underneath Physics, and set up a new and more firm one from which to start anew. Scientist closely looking at Einstein’s new theories saw new possibilities by knowing that object with a huge amount of mass actually bent space and intern time. Because as Einstein discovered that space and time were interconnected he called the idea space-time. Putting the idea that is space-time could be manipulated like the way a star does then intern time itself is being Manipulated. These ideas soon came to Einstein’s attention, and he quickly criticized such beliefs as ridiculous. Little did Einstein know just how much he had opened the gate for an enormous amount of new ideas. His theories also gave birth to Quantum physics which is ruled by the uncertainty principle. The uncertainty principal paints the world in mystery and paints a picture of the universe that is obscure and uncertain; this disgusted Einstein for which he responded by saying “god does not play dice with the world” he saw the universe as one of order not one full of chaos. Einstein being one of the fathers of the factual Idea of Time Travel was also one of its biggest critics. This in a sense killed the idea for a while, for how could Einstein be mistaken.
Moral Problems
Mention the idea of Time Travel and the fist thing to pop in peoples head it that it impossible. The main reason for that is God would not allow it. Time Travel has been seen as something that in a way is evil for that fact that people think that only god himself can look in the future and the past can never be changed because it is gods will, Our own conviction for religion is also our downfall because many people are not willing to put their religious thought aside and thing of the possible betterment to the human species by the advent of time travel. How easy it would be for us to remove a dictator or a mass murderer from being born and in turn save many innocent lives. Many critics have come up with the answer that it was gods will for that to happen and they come to accept that outcome. How can humans after coming so far just accept it was gods will as a legitimate answer?
Brought Back From The Ashes
In the recent years there have been many new exciting discoveries, as well as new theories that have brought the field of Time Travel back from the ashes, where it once laid. Now you ask most Physicist about time travel and most will answer it’s possible, but improbable. Well, let’s get into what exactly what notion brought Time Travel back from the ashes.
New Discoveries
Against Einstein’s own instinct and beliefs one of the ideas brought forward by Einstein’s theory of gravity is that if you put a massive enough object in space it would bend space so much that it could even create a tear in space-time, this is known as a black hole. When Einstein heard of this idea he renounced it saying again something in nature would keep that amount of mass from being in the same place. We now know that when a star dies if it has a given amount of mass to begin with, as it begins to die, gravity will do its job squeezing the star tighter and tighter making it more massive and more massive till it forms a black hole. We have found these phenomena which many people thought to be impossible to exist in nature [1]. We cannot see them directly but in a way we can see the way other thing around it reacts because of their presence. The idea of space being able to be warped is where the idea of Time Travel becomes possible.
Public Interest
Public interest in the subject of Time Travel has increased a lot, since seeing the benefits in it. How many people would like to have their loved ones returned due to crime prevention information provided by knowing what’s going on in the future. This will surely be a very welcomed use for Time Travel. Even with all the good things that would come from the prospect of Time Travel there also come the concerns of misuse. What could keep a person from getting future information and using it to make a fortune and possibly putting himself in position of power, or from killing someone with information learned from the future? As with everything else in life there are always risks that come along, as well as benefits, but what the public must do is weight the pros and cons.
Science Behind Time Travel
People hear Science behind Time Travel and automatically think I’m not a rocket scientist, “I can’t understand that.” The Science behind that is actually quite simple to understand. The laws behind Time Travel themselves can be understood by a ten year old.
Laws of Physics
The most famous of all equations E=mc^2 is one of the equations being used against the idea of faster than light travel, which is needed in order to travel forward in time. Let me explain something, the closer you get to the speed of light the slower time moves for you in comparison to someone that is not moving at all. So if one was to move at the speed of light or even faster one would in fact be going forward in time how far ahead depends on how much faster you go over the speed of light. The problem with Einstein’s theory of relativity is that one cannot travel at the speed of light, due to the fact that the faster you go the more energy you need and the closer you get to the speed of light the more massive you get and in turn you need more energy until the amount of energy and your mass itself becomes infinite. As we all know there is no known source of infinite energy so in actuality it is impossible to travel faster than light conventionally. This is where the human ingenuity comes in as we discussed space is curved and bent by gravity (figure1). So if we were to manipulate gravity to an extent that we can bend space to our advantage then faster than light travel is possible. Let me explain, speed is a measurement of distance over time. This simple measurement is the key to faster than light travel. So you are traveling from point (A) to point (B) you take the distance from point (A) to point (B) 100,000 miles and it takes you 10 hours to travel that distance well your speed is 10,000 mph. So what does this have to do with the fact that gravity bends space well what would happen if you took that distance and bent the space between them you could in fact then take a shortcut between the two point (figure2). The way that works is you are in fact still traveling the same distance but since you are taking a shortcut then you will take less time to get to your destination . So if you travel a distance 200,000 miles and traveled them in a second then you are in fact traveling at a speed of 200,000 mps which is faster than light, your speed then would be determined by the amount you bend space around you . There is also a thought that there are rear anomalies in space called worm hole which are two black holes in two separate points in space that are interconnected (figure3). Therefore allowing travel to another region of space instantaneously and in that manner you have virtually gone back in time to another region of space. NASA has done several experiments with clocks on earth and one on the space shuttle going to space upon the return of the shuttle the clocks were slightly off. Were you to speed up the shuttle to the speed of light the difference in the two clocks would grow to be enormous, showing that time does slow down the closer you get to the speed of light[2].
Physicist Thoughts
Many Physicist look at these ideas as ones that are feasible and will be achievable within a reasonable amount of time given the time and money to develop the ideas. But there are more things keeping these ideas from surfacing, mainly the fear of ridicule for those seriously pursuing these problems. Even now in the 21st century there is in a sense a witch hunt for physicist researching these types of subjects and they are labeled as fools. Weren’t Galileo, Newton, and even Einstein seen the same way when they first introduced their ideas to the world? Physicist now should open their eyes to all possibilities, because from these men will rise the next Einstein or Hawkings, two of the worlds brightest minds. Like all ideas in the past any new idea will face ridicule and even dismissal from having any scientific ground but it is important to still pursue these problems and not let them die.
Conclusion
With the information that is provided in this research paper I hope that I have at least peaked your interest and I hope you would agree that Time Travel in fact does have some scientific merit and is not just some childhood dream. I know that you will agree with me when I say that this subject burns in the minds of all Americans, as well as bring fear into the idea. There are many problems still with the idea of Time Travel, but in the future I believe that these problems will be solved and we will have to ask ourselves the question if we believe we should developed this technology to the betterment of man kind. I hope that in the near future Time Travel will become an accepted field in the eyes of all physicists.
__________________
Warning!!! This is just a sample Time Travel research paper (Time Travel research paper example) which cannot be used as your own paper. You can contact our custom research paper writing service which provides college and university students with high-quality custom written essays, term papers, research papers, thesis papers and dissertations on Time Travel topics.
Get professional Time Travel research paper writing help from our professional Ph.D. and Master's academic writers. A+ quality and 100% plagiarism are guaranteed! Feel free to ORDER A CUSTOM RESEARCH PAPER ON TIME TRAVEL RIGHT NOW and you won't be disappointed.
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Certainly, paying for dissertation writing you should be sure that your paper will be written in sctrict accordance with your academic specifications and requirements to be included in your dissertation research. Do you need help with writing your dissertation chapter such as dissertation introduction, methodology, abstract, discussion, hypothesis, conclusion? Are you ready to pay for preparing your dissertation proposal or thesis proposal? But there is a question: Whom can you pay to do a custom dissertation for me? The answer is evident: Professional dissertation writing services will help you write a good dissertation for you.
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Sunday, August 2, 2009
Physics Research Paper
In order for an astronaut to be able to ‘live’ in space, the environment in which they occupy must be similar to that of their original location, Earth. The Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) of a human bearing space craft consists of many aspects.
The seven main different aspects are:
• Atmosphere Control, Supply and Recycling
• Water
• Temperature Control
• Light
• Food
• Waste Removal
• Fire Protection
Atmosphere Control, Supply and Recycling
Within the space vessel the following is needed for a crew to survive:
• An atmosphere similar to Earth – achieved by using liquid oxygen and nitrogen tanks to produce a gas mixture consisting of approx. 78% oxygen and 22% nitrogen at the correct pressure of 14lbs/in2 throughout the ship.
• Breathed out carbon dioxide removed - by chemically using soda lime. The carbon dioxide is trapped in the soda lime by a chemical reaction and removed from the air.
• Contaminating or trace gases removed - trace odours, dust and volatile chemicals from leaks, spills and out gassing are removed using Filters and charcoal canisters
• Normal humid environment – a cabin heat exchanger is employed to separate water from the air using a centrifugal force
Water
Water is created using Fuel Cells (Refer to Power – Page ??). It is then passed through a hydrogen separator to remove any excess hydrogen that may reside in the newly formed water. The water is then stored in pressurised tanks and can be used for various activities. Water is continuously being created, and any excess water is dumped overboard.
Temperature Control
As inside the vessel, the electronics provide enough heat, the temperature control system must be able to carry out the following two tasks:
• Distribute the heat so that sections of the ship do not freeze from the cold of space
• Get rid of the excess heat
The two ways this can be achieved is by using passive or active methods.
Passive methods are generally very simple require very little maintenance however do only carry a small heat load. These include the use of insulation and electrical heaters.
Active methods are much more complex, require frequent maintenance but can bear many times greater heat load than Passive methods. These more effective methods include the use of Heat Sinks (Cold Plates), Heat Exchangers (Fluid Cooling), Radiators and ammonia boilers.
Light
The space vehicle in which the astronauts reside must be very well lit. Taking the American Space Shuttle into perspective, we see that fluorescent floodlights are used in the crew compartment, external floodlights are used to light the cargo bay and the control panel of the ship is backlit to improve viewing ease.
Food
Food must be very carefully stored to prevent rotting or other type of wasting. The most common forms of storage that would be feasible and used in such a vehicle are dehydration, low-moisture and heat stabilised. These would then require a way to reverse the process and also require the following resources:
• food storage compartments
• food warmers
• a food preparation area with warm and cold water outlets
• metal trays to hold utensils and food in place
Waste Removal
Removal of debris and potentially dangerous items is an important factor up in space. Various different waste collection methods are available, though some better than others. An extremely effective method of waste removal includes the separation of liquids from the solids. The liquids are then discarded overboard while the solids are brought back to Earth where they are destroyed. This is effective because not only does it work for objects such as wipes and detergents etc, it can also be employed as a way to deal with toilet waste.
Fire Protection
Fire over all things is probably the most dangerous possible problem while in space. This means that the vehicle must be equip with not only extinguishing utilities, but with various methods of prevention.
A possible system to deal with fire could include:
• area smoke detectors
• smoke detectors in each rack of electrical equipment
• alarms and warning lights
• non-toxic portable fire extinguishers
• personal breathing apparatus - mask and oxygen bottle for each crew member
After a fire occurs, the atmosphere control system works to remove any remaining particles of dust or smoke that may be left in the air.
Communications
The crew of a space craft require the ability to talk to both the mission centre on Earth and each other while carrying out tasks on the outside of the vessel or in payload modules.
To communicate to the Earth from the vessel, and also the opposite, communication satellites situated approximately 35,700 km above the earth are used. These tracking satellites relay the signal between a very tall radio transmitting/receiving tower and the space craft, which can be in two possible bandwidths:
• S-Band – Used for voice, commands, telemetry and data files
• Ku-Band – High bandwidth channel used for video and the transfer of two-way data files
In order to communicate with the other members of the crew, a UHF frequency can be used to transmit and receive voice. A spacewalker’s spacesuit is fitted with a personal headset and microphone enabling communication between the shuttle and him/herself. As in the American Space Shuttle, plug-in audio terminals can be located throughout the crew compartment making it much easier to communicate with other astronauts on opposite sides of a ship.
Energy Sources
The two types of energy sources that spring to mind when a space ship is mentioned would have to be, solar energy and generated power.
Solar energy are commonly used in applications such as satellites and telescopes which are aimed to stay in space for a long period of time and are frequently moving in the sun’s path. By being able to charge batteries using solar energy, a satellite can function a set period of time away from direct contact of the sun.
However when it comes to space vehicles, a guarantee cannot be made that the sun will be frequently encountered and therefore solar power would be an unreliable energy source
Generated power using devices such as fuel cells is more effective for such an application and has many other uses. Fuel cells are made of:
• The anode side – negative post which conducts the freed electrons from the hydrogen so they can be used on an external circuit
• The cathode side – positive post which collects and conducts electrons back from the external circuit. Here they recombine with the hydrogen ions and the oxygen molecules to form the water used on the vessel.
• The electrolyte – A specially treated material used and placed between the cathode and anode sides to prevent the conduction of electrons, forcing them to take an external course
• The catalyst – A special material used to speed up the reaction of the oxygen and hydrogen. Usually made of a very thin coat of platinum powder on carbon paper or cloth. The surface is made coarse so that the maximum surface area possible is in contact with the hydrogen or oxygen.
They are grouped in a stack of cells (similar to a battery) and create approximately 0.7 volts each. Although this is a small figure, when hundreds of fuels cells are grouped together, a large voltage can be attained.
Computers and Navigation
A space ship is known by most people as a very complex piece of equipment; however the computers used on such a vessel are not as high tech and up to date as a great deal of people think.
Issues such as solar wind and high energy particles come into play when up in outer space. A modern day processor has tracks so thin that if a high energy particle just managed to pass through it, chances are it would totally break a track and render the computer unusable. To accommodate for such interferences, computers are required to contain appropriate parts which lessen the chances of damage. These include older, slower and larger processors, low density memory chips, and other similar hardware.
In space travel, a single error can lead to disaster. This is why onboard such vehicles the use of multiple computers and the utilisation of methods such as fuzzy logic are important. These computers monitor equipment and control critical adjustments during launch and landing.
They also perform tasks such as:
• Operation of the craft
• Interface with the crew (Using laptops)
• Caution and warning systems
• Data acquisition and processing from conducted experiments
• Flight manoeuvres
The navigation of the craft is done mainly by the computers, however the information needed to fly the vessel is fed to the computers by the crew. Global positioning devices are also used to recognise where the vessel is and an approximate speed of travel. The use of gyroscopes comes in very useful when trying to identify the direction of heading.
Rockets
A rocket is a device which is based on the principle by Newton that “to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”. A rocket is designed to throw a large mass in one direction and benefit from the reaction force in the opposite direction.
The high pressure gas that a rocket fires out in one direction can be seen as the mass. It comes from the weight of the fuel that the rocket burns. Even though the fuel changes in form from a liquid or solid to a gas, its mass does not change. This burning process causes the gas to expand and shoot out at an extremely high velocity (between 8000 and 16000 km/h).
Single-stage Rockets
These types of rockets are very commonly used on missiles type objects. They are simple rockets do not go through more than 1 stage of fire. The two different types of single stage rockets are solid-fuel and liquid-fuel.
Solid-fuel Rockets
Solid fuel rockets were designed with a very simple concept behind them. A rocket the burns very quickly but not explode. The fuel is lined around the edges of the cylindrical rocket with a tube drilled down the middle. When the fuel is ignited it burns away the fuel from the centre towards the outside casing until it is all exausted.
These solid fuel rockets have 3 main advantages:
• Simple
• Low cost
• Safe compared to many others
But also have 2 disadvantages
• Thrust cannot be controlled.
• Once ignited, the engine cannot be stopped or restarted.
These disadvantages allow us to see why these types of rockets are used in short term applications such as missiles or booster systems.
Liquid-fuel Rockets
Liquid fuel rockets work in a similar way as solid fuel rockets. A solid fuel rocket burns a solid fuel and an oxidiser, where a liquid fuel rocket burns a liquid fuel and an oxidiser. However they are no where near as simple as solid fuel rockets. They require a pressurised gas feed for the carry of fuel and oxidiser to the burning chamber, piping to cool the engine, and are required to carry the oxidiser as well as the fuel onboard the rocket. A real modern liquid bipropellant engine has thousands of piping connections carrying various cooling, fuelling, or lubricating fluids.
Liquid Fuel Rockets have 4 important advantages:
• Most powerful type of rocket in terms of gross thrust
• Can be built with many variable factors
• Level of thrust can be controlled
• Can last much longer than Solid fuel rockets
However they also have 2 major disadvantages:
• Extremely intricate and complex, have a large window for error
• Nitric acid used onboard is extremely corrosive and dangerous
Multistage rockets
Multistage rockets were developed with one thing in mind, efficiency. The main principle was to discard what had been used to minimise weight and increase overall speed. To do this, the rocket is split into many ‘stages’. These stages can be either solid fuelled or liquid fuelled. By jettisoning the used sections, the weight of the rocket is decreased and the mass ratio of the rocket is increased. To get the payload to its desired height in the most efficient manner, it is better to raise the propellant weight ratio by discarding unnecessary parts one after the other, not to lose reliability by making the system too complicated. Most rockets these days are built on a 2 or 3 stage design. Multistage rockets were used in the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs as well as the current Space Shuttle.
Cluster Rockets
Developing a large rocket engine powerful enough to soli lift a rocket is quite an expensive process. A more cost effective and secure method of thrust is brought by through the use of cluster rockets. These rockets are basically a group of many small engines that work together to lift the craft. The engines used can be previous designs from existing rockets which cuts costs and time in development. The main advantage is that if one of the 20+ engines fails, the flight is not disrupted and can continue as normal. Another advantage includes the fact that only one fuel tank is required and shared among the engines, thus making the craft lighter than a multistage rocket.
Fuel
Solid Fuel
The fuel used in a solid fuel rocket has to follow one main principle, to burn very fast but not explode. A very simple fast burning compound can be made by taking gun powder and decreasing its burning speed (explosiveness). This sounds quite obvious and is used as a common fuel in home made fireworks. Perfect examples of solid fuel rockets are the 2 SRB’s (solid rocket boosters) used on the American Space Shuttle. These have a much more technical mix of chemicals compared to the gun powder formula. The ingredients of the fuel are essential for performance and other special needs such as burn time and thrust.
The SRB’s contain the following mixture as a fuel (percentages by weight):
• 69.6% - Ammonium perchlorate (oxidizer)
• 16% - Aluminium (fuel)
• 0.4% - Iron oxide (a catalyst)
• 12.04% - A polymer (a binder that holds the mixture together)
• 1.96% - An epoxy curing agent
This mixture burns at approximately 4.2 tonnes per second! Together the SRB’s contain about 1 million kg of fuel mixture and provide a thrust of 2.41 million kg (23.4 million N)!!
Liquid Fuel
In most liquid-propellant rocket engines, a fuel and an oxidiser is pumped into a chamber where it is burned and forced out one end. But just exactly what is the fuel and oxidiser? There’s no one answer for fuel, because based on the needs and availability of chemicals it changes. However, the oxidiser used in most liquid fuelled rockets has been oxygen. It is one of the most abundant chemicals available on earth and works well as an oxidiser with many other chemicals chosen for the fuel.
The most common chemicals used for a fuel alongside liquid oxygen as the oxidiser are:
• Liquid hydrogen – Used currently in the Space Shuttle main engines
• Kerosene – Used in the Apollo Program for the Saturn V first stage boosters
• Alcohol – Used by the Germans in their V2 rockets
• Gasoline – Used by Goddard on his early rockets
However, as oxygen is not the only possible oxidiser, another recently used combination was Nitrogen tetroxide and monomethyl hydrazine in the Cassini flight system.
__________________
Warning!!! This is just a sample Physics research paper (Physics research paper example) which cannot be used as your own paper. You can contact our custom research paper writing service which provides college and university students with high-quality custom written essays, term papers, research papers, thesis papers and dissertations on Physics topics.
Get professional Physics research paper writing help from our professional Ph.D. and Master's academic writers. A+ quality and 100% plagiarism are guaranteed! Feel free to ORDER A CUSTOM RESEARCH PAPER ON PHYSICS RIGHT NOW and you won't be disappointed.
The seven main different aspects are:
• Atmosphere Control, Supply and Recycling
• Water
• Temperature Control
• Light
• Food
• Waste Removal
• Fire Protection
Atmosphere Control, Supply and Recycling
Within the space vessel the following is needed for a crew to survive:
• An atmosphere similar to Earth – achieved by using liquid oxygen and nitrogen tanks to produce a gas mixture consisting of approx. 78% oxygen and 22% nitrogen at the correct pressure of 14lbs/in2 throughout the ship.
• Breathed out carbon dioxide removed - by chemically using soda lime. The carbon dioxide is trapped in the soda lime by a chemical reaction and removed from the air.
• Contaminating or trace gases removed - trace odours, dust and volatile chemicals from leaks, spills and out gassing are removed using Filters and charcoal canisters
• Normal humid environment – a cabin heat exchanger is employed to separate water from the air using a centrifugal force
Water
Water is created using Fuel Cells (Refer to Power – Page ??). It is then passed through a hydrogen separator to remove any excess hydrogen that may reside in the newly formed water. The water is then stored in pressurised tanks and can be used for various activities. Water is continuously being created, and any excess water is dumped overboard.
Temperature Control
As inside the vessel, the electronics provide enough heat, the temperature control system must be able to carry out the following two tasks:
• Distribute the heat so that sections of the ship do not freeze from the cold of space
• Get rid of the excess heat
The two ways this can be achieved is by using passive or active methods.
Passive methods are generally very simple require very little maintenance however do only carry a small heat load. These include the use of insulation and electrical heaters.
Active methods are much more complex, require frequent maintenance but can bear many times greater heat load than Passive methods. These more effective methods include the use of Heat Sinks (Cold Plates), Heat Exchangers (Fluid Cooling), Radiators and ammonia boilers.
Light
The space vehicle in which the astronauts reside must be very well lit. Taking the American Space Shuttle into perspective, we see that fluorescent floodlights are used in the crew compartment, external floodlights are used to light the cargo bay and the control panel of the ship is backlit to improve viewing ease.
Food
Food must be very carefully stored to prevent rotting or other type of wasting. The most common forms of storage that would be feasible and used in such a vehicle are dehydration, low-moisture and heat stabilised. These would then require a way to reverse the process and also require the following resources:
• food storage compartments
• food warmers
• a food preparation area with warm and cold water outlets
• metal trays to hold utensils and food in place
Waste Removal
Removal of debris and potentially dangerous items is an important factor up in space. Various different waste collection methods are available, though some better than others. An extremely effective method of waste removal includes the separation of liquids from the solids. The liquids are then discarded overboard while the solids are brought back to Earth where they are destroyed. This is effective because not only does it work for objects such as wipes and detergents etc, it can also be employed as a way to deal with toilet waste.
Fire Protection
Fire over all things is probably the most dangerous possible problem while in space. This means that the vehicle must be equip with not only extinguishing utilities, but with various methods of prevention.
A possible system to deal with fire could include:
• area smoke detectors
• smoke detectors in each rack of electrical equipment
• alarms and warning lights
• non-toxic portable fire extinguishers
• personal breathing apparatus - mask and oxygen bottle for each crew member
After a fire occurs, the atmosphere control system works to remove any remaining particles of dust or smoke that may be left in the air.
Communications
The crew of a space craft require the ability to talk to both the mission centre on Earth and each other while carrying out tasks on the outside of the vessel or in payload modules.
To communicate to the Earth from the vessel, and also the opposite, communication satellites situated approximately 35,700 km above the earth are used. These tracking satellites relay the signal between a very tall radio transmitting/receiving tower and the space craft, which can be in two possible bandwidths:
• S-Band – Used for voice, commands, telemetry and data files
• Ku-Band – High bandwidth channel used for video and the transfer of two-way data files
In order to communicate with the other members of the crew, a UHF frequency can be used to transmit and receive voice. A spacewalker’s spacesuit is fitted with a personal headset and microphone enabling communication between the shuttle and him/herself. As in the American Space Shuttle, plug-in audio terminals can be located throughout the crew compartment making it much easier to communicate with other astronauts on opposite sides of a ship.
Energy Sources
The two types of energy sources that spring to mind when a space ship is mentioned would have to be, solar energy and generated power.
Solar energy are commonly used in applications such as satellites and telescopes which are aimed to stay in space for a long period of time and are frequently moving in the sun’s path. By being able to charge batteries using solar energy, a satellite can function a set period of time away from direct contact of the sun.
However when it comes to space vehicles, a guarantee cannot be made that the sun will be frequently encountered and therefore solar power would be an unreliable energy source
Generated power using devices such as fuel cells is more effective for such an application and has many other uses. Fuel cells are made of:
• The anode side – negative post which conducts the freed electrons from the hydrogen so they can be used on an external circuit
• The cathode side – positive post which collects and conducts electrons back from the external circuit. Here they recombine with the hydrogen ions and the oxygen molecules to form the water used on the vessel.
• The electrolyte – A specially treated material used and placed between the cathode and anode sides to prevent the conduction of electrons, forcing them to take an external course
• The catalyst – A special material used to speed up the reaction of the oxygen and hydrogen. Usually made of a very thin coat of platinum powder on carbon paper or cloth. The surface is made coarse so that the maximum surface area possible is in contact with the hydrogen or oxygen.
They are grouped in a stack of cells (similar to a battery) and create approximately 0.7 volts each. Although this is a small figure, when hundreds of fuels cells are grouped together, a large voltage can be attained.
Computers and Navigation
A space ship is known by most people as a very complex piece of equipment; however the computers used on such a vessel are not as high tech and up to date as a great deal of people think.
Issues such as solar wind and high energy particles come into play when up in outer space. A modern day processor has tracks so thin that if a high energy particle just managed to pass through it, chances are it would totally break a track and render the computer unusable. To accommodate for such interferences, computers are required to contain appropriate parts which lessen the chances of damage. These include older, slower and larger processors, low density memory chips, and other similar hardware.
In space travel, a single error can lead to disaster. This is why onboard such vehicles the use of multiple computers and the utilisation of methods such as fuzzy logic are important. These computers monitor equipment and control critical adjustments during launch and landing.
They also perform tasks such as:
• Operation of the craft
• Interface with the crew (Using laptops)
• Caution and warning systems
• Data acquisition and processing from conducted experiments
• Flight manoeuvres
The navigation of the craft is done mainly by the computers, however the information needed to fly the vessel is fed to the computers by the crew. Global positioning devices are also used to recognise where the vessel is and an approximate speed of travel. The use of gyroscopes comes in very useful when trying to identify the direction of heading.
Rockets
A rocket is a device which is based on the principle by Newton that “to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”. A rocket is designed to throw a large mass in one direction and benefit from the reaction force in the opposite direction.
The high pressure gas that a rocket fires out in one direction can be seen as the mass. It comes from the weight of the fuel that the rocket burns. Even though the fuel changes in form from a liquid or solid to a gas, its mass does not change. This burning process causes the gas to expand and shoot out at an extremely high velocity (between 8000 and 16000 km/h).
Single-stage Rockets
These types of rockets are very commonly used on missiles type objects. They are simple rockets do not go through more than 1 stage of fire. The two different types of single stage rockets are solid-fuel and liquid-fuel.
Solid-fuel Rockets
Solid fuel rockets were designed with a very simple concept behind them. A rocket the burns very quickly but not explode. The fuel is lined around the edges of the cylindrical rocket with a tube drilled down the middle. When the fuel is ignited it burns away the fuel from the centre towards the outside casing until it is all exausted.
These solid fuel rockets have 3 main advantages:
• Simple
• Low cost
• Safe compared to many others
But also have 2 disadvantages
• Thrust cannot be controlled.
• Once ignited, the engine cannot be stopped or restarted.
These disadvantages allow us to see why these types of rockets are used in short term applications such as missiles or booster systems.
Liquid-fuel Rockets
Liquid fuel rockets work in a similar way as solid fuel rockets. A solid fuel rocket burns a solid fuel and an oxidiser, where a liquid fuel rocket burns a liquid fuel and an oxidiser. However they are no where near as simple as solid fuel rockets. They require a pressurised gas feed for the carry of fuel and oxidiser to the burning chamber, piping to cool the engine, and are required to carry the oxidiser as well as the fuel onboard the rocket. A real modern liquid bipropellant engine has thousands of piping connections carrying various cooling, fuelling, or lubricating fluids.
Liquid Fuel Rockets have 4 important advantages:
• Most powerful type of rocket in terms of gross thrust
• Can be built with many variable factors
• Level of thrust can be controlled
• Can last much longer than Solid fuel rockets
However they also have 2 major disadvantages:
• Extremely intricate and complex, have a large window for error
• Nitric acid used onboard is extremely corrosive and dangerous
Multistage rockets
Multistage rockets were developed with one thing in mind, efficiency. The main principle was to discard what had been used to minimise weight and increase overall speed. To do this, the rocket is split into many ‘stages’. These stages can be either solid fuelled or liquid fuelled. By jettisoning the used sections, the weight of the rocket is decreased and the mass ratio of the rocket is increased. To get the payload to its desired height in the most efficient manner, it is better to raise the propellant weight ratio by discarding unnecessary parts one after the other, not to lose reliability by making the system too complicated. Most rockets these days are built on a 2 or 3 stage design. Multistage rockets were used in the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs as well as the current Space Shuttle.
Cluster Rockets
Developing a large rocket engine powerful enough to soli lift a rocket is quite an expensive process. A more cost effective and secure method of thrust is brought by through the use of cluster rockets. These rockets are basically a group of many small engines that work together to lift the craft. The engines used can be previous designs from existing rockets which cuts costs and time in development. The main advantage is that if one of the 20+ engines fails, the flight is not disrupted and can continue as normal. Another advantage includes the fact that only one fuel tank is required and shared among the engines, thus making the craft lighter than a multistage rocket.
Fuel
Solid Fuel
The fuel used in a solid fuel rocket has to follow one main principle, to burn very fast but not explode. A very simple fast burning compound can be made by taking gun powder and decreasing its burning speed (explosiveness). This sounds quite obvious and is used as a common fuel in home made fireworks. Perfect examples of solid fuel rockets are the 2 SRB’s (solid rocket boosters) used on the American Space Shuttle. These have a much more technical mix of chemicals compared to the gun powder formula. The ingredients of the fuel are essential for performance and other special needs such as burn time and thrust.
The SRB’s contain the following mixture as a fuel (percentages by weight):
• 69.6% - Ammonium perchlorate (oxidizer)
• 16% - Aluminium (fuel)
• 0.4% - Iron oxide (a catalyst)
• 12.04% - A polymer (a binder that holds the mixture together)
• 1.96% - An epoxy curing agent
This mixture burns at approximately 4.2 tonnes per second! Together the SRB’s contain about 1 million kg of fuel mixture and provide a thrust of 2.41 million kg (23.4 million N)!!
Liquid Fuel
In most liquid-propellant rocket engines, a fuel and an oxidiser is pumped into a chamber where it is burned and forced out one end. But just exactly what is the fuel and oxidiser? There’s no one answer for fuel, because based on the needs and availability of chemicals it changes. However, the oxidiser used in most liquid fuelled rockets has been oxygen. It is one of the most abundant chemicals available on earth and works well as an oxidiser with many other chemicals chosen for the fuel.
The most common chemicals used for a fuel alongside liquid oxygen as the oxidiser are:
• Liquid hydrogen – Used currently in the Space Shuttle main engines
• Kerosene – Used in the Apollo Program for the Saturn V first stage boosters
• Alcohol – Used by the Germans in their V2 rockets
• Gasoline – Used by Goddard on his early rockets
However, as oxygen is not the only possible oxidiser, another recently used combination was Nitrogen tetroxide and monomethyl hydrazine in the Cassini flight system.
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