Of Mice and Men essay

The novel Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck is a short novel made up of six parts and its setting is California of the United States in the 1930s, a time of the Great Depression. The action of the whole story takes place within several days and it is focused on a farmhouse by the side of the Salina River in California. The story is about the experience of two working hands, Lennie and George, in a bunkhouse. These two men earn their living in the ranch as labours and they have their devotion to working just because they share their common dream of owning a farm together in their future. It is a pity that Lennie's killing of Curley's wife breaks their dream and forces George to kill Lennie with his own hand. The novel is a social novel describing the hard life of the Americans in the west in the 1930s. Throughout the story, the author would like to bring out his most explicit theme that we human beings exist and make efforts in life just because we have a dream for our future and once the dream breaks, we lose all our inertia for work.

Of the few characters in the novel, the two most important ones are George and Lennie. It is difficult to identify which one is the protagonist since the two play an equal part in the development of the plot. Lennie has to depend on the intelligent advice from George while George has to rely on the gigantic strength of Lennie. They are so interdependent on each other that they generate an intimate relationship, a relationship that arouses the suspicion of those in the farm. George has a sense of responsibility as he accepts the duty of looking after his retarded partner Lennie. However, Lennie has his own problems, the problem of petting soft things and having no brains. (I should say that) They are both character foils to each other. Physically, George is small and skinny while Lennie is "strong as a horse" and "as big as a bear". George, as the author describes, is a small fellow with a "small and quick, dark" and bony nose." He describes Lennie as a "huge man, shapeless" His arms did not swing at his sides, but hung loosely." Mentally, George is smart while Lennie has a child's mind. George makes the decision for both and has promised Aunt Clara to look after Lennie.

Both characters are static characters as they learn nothing from their experience in the story. I learn much about the two characters through indirect presentation since the author puts a lot of conversations in the novel. In my opinion, the characters of Lennie and George are a little bit exaggerated because it is difficult to find such a pair in real life. At least, there is no such sincerity existing between two persons today. What we find today are characters who can only share mutual benefits in a practical world. As long as a person's value of being manipulated does not exist, co-operation or friendship evaporates. In the story, there are other minor characters such as the boss' son Curley and his wife and the ranch helpers like the old man Candy and Crooks.

The conflicts of man versus man are common in the story. Curley is jealous of the strong and muscular Lennie. The critical conflict comes with Lennie grabbing Curley's fist and crushing the latter's hand. The coincidence of killing Candy's old dog from behind foreshadows the killing of Lennie by George from behind. The loneliness of Curley's wife encourages her to come into close contact with Lennie, thus meeting her death. George's advice to Lennie on hiding near the Salina River foreshadows Lennie's hiding after he has killed Curley's wife. These coincidences , when weaved together, give the story a sense of coherence and smooth plot development. The author's purposes in writing the novel are twofold. First , he wants to reveal that human beings need mutual trust and companionship. Secondly, human beings need a dream to survive.

Curley and his wife lack companionship because they do not trust each other. On the other hand, the author shows that mutual trust and communication enable George and Lennie to take care of each other. In order to survive, George and Lennie are given the hope of owning a farm of their own by the author. Such a dream allows the two to work hard in the ranch and support their life spiritually. On the other hand, Curley's wife loses her dream of being a Hollywood star after her marriage, thus making her life empty and meaningless.

The novel is mainly told in the form of a dialogue and I look upon it as a play-novel. However, there are some instances when the writer enters the mind of all the characters and see through their thoughts and actions. Thus (I may also say that) the novel is written in the omniscient point of view. The author has the ability to pay attention in describing details. I do appreciate his detailed description of the bunk house and the surroundings in the Salina River. "The bunk house was a long, rectangular building. Inside, the walls were whitewashed and the floor unpainted. In three walls there were small, square windows, and in the fourth, a solid door with a wooden latch." (19) He is also able to pour emotions into the dialogue from which the readers can feel the inner feelings of the characters. "Let's have different color rabbits, George." "Sure we will," George said sleepily. "Red and blue and green rabbits, Lennie. Millions of 'em."(17) The conversation reveals Lennie's wishes and George's impatience and sleepiness. In using the lot of informal grammar and content , the author deliberately tries to make the readers feel that we are enjoying the conversations of the lower-class people in the 1930s.

I like the novel because I learn much from reading it. Apart from understanding the background of Steinbeck's time in the 1930s, I also know that the stronger ones are not always clever while the physically weaker ones may be those who manipulate others through their intelligence. I also find that loneliness is a horrible thing on Earth and therefore we need companionship and communication. Moreover, we also need a dream to enrich our life and future. Finally, I learn that racial discrimination is wrong because it is unfair to the black people. The novel has a universal appeal although it is set in the 1930s. We accept that we need communication and understanding and a dream for survival. The ending gives me surprises because George not only fails to materialize the dream of owning a farm with Lennie but also has to kill Lennie with his own hand. From another angle, the novel is a tragedy since there are the death of Curley's wife, the killing of Lennie by George and the breaking up of friendship between George and Lennie.

I shower pity on Curley's wife because she is the loneliest character in the novel. Moreover, the killing of Candy's old dog leaves Candy without a companion. I came across another novel called The Grapes of Wrath by the same author some years ago. There is a similar setting like that of Of Mice and Men and it also has a tragic ending when those migrating from the east fail to find a hand-to-mouth living in the west despite the so-called prosperity in the west. Although it is miserable for me to accept the tragic ending in Of Mice and Men, the story successfully leaves a deep impression in my mind. The characters and its themes do stimulate my thinking and give me a new perspective of human relationship and companionship. Seldom do I get a book so worthy of reading. I have got a lot in terms of knowledge, human experience and entertainment through reading the novel. In short, I would give the novel Of Mice and Men a rating of 9 out of 10 when I recommend it to students in Grades 11 and 12.

The Age of Napoleon Essay

Napoleon Bonaparte was a minor Corsican aristocrat who fought his way up to be Emperor of France. He was a dictator that advanced many of the goals of the Revolution. He represented change in the government and social processes. His motto was to be ruled by him or fight against him. He was well-known for his conquests all over Europe.

Some of the battles he fought and won were Marengo in June 1800 in which he defeated Austria, Austerlitz on December 2, 1805 in which he defeated the Russian and Austrian armies, Jena-Auerstadt and Friedland on June 14, 1807 in which he defeated the Russian Army in Poland. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Tilsit by Czar Alexander I in 1807. After this, Napoleon controlled the majority of Europe. By 1811, nearly all of Europe except for the Balkans was included in his Grand Empire.

Napoleon had a large family and he often appointed his brothers and sisters, distant relatives and faithful servants to royal positions in the countries he conquered. All of Napoleon’s takeovers followed the same pattern. At the beginning, his army would take over the area. Then, he would use his influence on the government to draft a new constitution. Then he would appoint a relative as the ruler to make sure the conquest would be loyal to him. His empire followed his orders and his rules. By 1811 his dream of a unified Europe under his rule was becoming a reality.

The reality of his dream soon came to an end when he was finally defeated in April 1814 and was exiled to Elba. Even though he was not an evil ruler, he was forceful when he took over other countries. Great Britain was the major stumbling block in Napoleon’s grand plan of conquering all of Europe and to make it unified. He even fought during his exile to Elba but was eventually defeated one last time.

Napoleon Bonaparte was a fighter from day one, working his way up from French general to Emperor. He fought to the end when he suffered a bloody defeat at Waterloo on June 18, 1815 and was exiled to Saint Helena. He eventually died in 1821 but his memory will haunt the French political life forever.

Global Warming Essay

Imagine a world where the landlocked state of Idaho is now prime oceanfront property and almost all of the major cities in the world are covered by water, a place where the average temperature ten degrees higher, and instead of California, Canada and Siberia now have the prime agricultural climates and tropical diseases are worldwide (Kyoto 13). This isn’t a science fiction movie. It is the predicted worst-case scenario if we continue to pollute the environment with greenhouse gases. Global warming is a serious threat that could threaten the existence of our civilization.

Some suggest that this horrible scenario is impossible and that global warming is all hype and no substance. They blame the global warming frenzy on ulterior political motives, faulty scientific data and a misinformed media. Unfortunately for us, this point of view is wrong and global warming is a serious threat.

Those who argue that it is all political hype say that politicians are making a big deal out of this issue in order to advance their political position. The author of one article dedicated to this viewpoint says, “The VP has been revving up his political engine on high octane global warming hype recently. This is probably the prelude to his expect bid for the White House in the next presidential election. He claims that the signatures of 2,500 scientists from the IPCC and record high temperatures this summer should seal the debate forever.” He and others who agree argue that these actions by the Vice President are based solely on his political agenda and faulty scientific data. They claim that the data Al Gore is using to base his decisions shows an increase in global temperature but isn’t credible because most of the temperatures were taken in urban areas where they can be skewed by the heat conducting properties of concrete and asphalt that are common in urban areas().

This argument does have a point, but there is one inconsistency. Why is Antarctica, a place with no manmade objects, experiencing the warmest years in all of history? There is no denying this fact. Climate records of Antarctica show that in the last half-century temperatures have risen almost 3 degrees Celsius and the ice shelves are disappearing at an alarming rate. “Between 1966 and 1989 most of the Wordie Ice Shelf, 502 square miles, disappeared. And over the past 18 months, two of the peninsula’s largest ice shelves have lost nearly 1,100 square miles of their total area, a sheet of ice about the size of Rhode Island,” says Mary Roach, author of “Antarctica’s Hot Spot”. Nobody can dispute the rising sea levels either, which is an effect of the melting ice.

Another position that many people argue is that the media, who have no hard, cold facts to go by, have blown up the issue of global warming in order to create controversy that will sell more papers and attract more viewers. Unfortunately, the media didn’t just cook this scheme up to make more money, they based it on undeniable scientific evidence. The fact that the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has risen drastically is a phenomenon that isn’t possible to dispute. Before the industrial revolution, amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was 270 parts per million. Today it is almost 360 parts per million due to our emissions from burning fossil fuels. “There is no known geologic precedent for large increases of atmospheric CO2 without simultaneous changes in other components of the carbon cycle and climate system,” states ;dj;lad. This means that throughout the earth’s geological history, there has never been a case where the CO2 level has risen and the climate hasn’t changed. Scientific evidence from core samples proves this. Unfortunately, today, the rise in CO2 hasn’t been natural as in the past, but has been imposed by us humans. The consequences of this unnatural balance could be devastating.

Global warming occurs because we are spewing emission gases into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels. These gases, with carbon dioxide being the main culprit, prevent solar heat from escaping the earth’s atmosphere, resulting in a rise in temperature, or the greenhouse effect. Already scientists around the world are detecting the numerous and dangerous effects of global warming. (Johnson 18).

These effects include rising sea levels, killer heat waves, outbreaks of tropical diseases, altered weather patterns, increased numbers of floods and hurricanes, and affected agricultural harvests (Calvin 49).

The most widely accepted effect from global warming is rising sea levels , which could dramatically transform our planet. Polar sea ice and alpine glaciers have been steadily receding over the last two decades (Wheeler 96). If the huge polar ice caps disgorge their enormous volume of fresh water into the sea, the abrupt rise in the sea level will cover coastal and low-lying lands around the globe. Fifty percent of the world’s major cites are located on the coast, as well as many natural treasures such as the Florida Everglades and the Hawaiian Islands (“What We’ve Learned”). All of these coastal areas would be submerged. The sea has already risen four inches since the turn of the century and it is expected to rise much more abruptly. Earth could possibly become a water world (Kyoto 14).

The effect on the world’s climate from increasing temperatures could be just as devastating. Floods, droughts, heat waves and plagues are all on the rise. The eleven warmest years in history have occurred since 1980. Increasing temperatures will cause much more precipitation in certain parts of the world, leading to many deadly floods (Johnson 22). Conversely, other parts of the globe will see a reduction in rainfall and deserts will relentlessly overtake thousands of square miles of habitable land (Sclener 97). Northern areas such as Europe, Russia, Canada, and the northern United States could have milder winters. This at first glance may seem like a good thing. However the changing climates can allow tropical diseases to move into higher latitudes and affect people and animals that have no immunity to the new viruses. Already deadly rodent viruses are showing up in areas of Africa and the American Southwest that were previously unknown to affect humans (Sclener 23).

As if these changes in sea level and climate are not scary enough, the changes to agriculture around the world could be the most threatening of all. Many third world countries depend on agriculture for their entire export economy as well as the primary source of food for their citizens. Entire countries could lose their agriculture base because of altered climate patterns (Johnson 55). At our current rate of pollution, all of these disasters are expected to take place in as little as fifty years (Calvin 55).

The phenomenon of global warming is an extremely serious matter. Not just hype as many claim. The scientific evidence of increased greenhouse gases, melting ice sheets and rise in sea level are undeniable facts. If we don’t do something to prevent this from increasing, our entire civilization is at risk.

We can stop continued global warming by enticing industries to switch to more energy efficient fuels like natural gas. We can reduce our dependence on fossil fuels by driving more fuel efficient cars, installing solar cells on our roofs, and relying more on wind, solar, hydroelectric, and nuclear power for our electricity. The governments of the world need to look past the perceived economic drawbacks of reducing our use of fossil fuels and realize the enormous economic potential of emerging environmental technology that could prevent global warming (Sclener). Global warming is real and we need to stop it now before it is too late.

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Cancer Research Paper

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in the world today. Studies show that one in three people will suffer from some form of cancer in their lifetime. There are many different kinds of cancer that effect different parts of the body. Cancer is treated in various different ways. Some forms of cancer are curable, and some are not.

Cancer usually comes from the formation of a tumor. Tumors form in the body when cells are produced unnecessarily. That is to say, that new cells are formed when they are not needed, and they group together to form a tumor. The tumor can be benign, which means that it is non-cancerous, or it can be malignant, which means that it is cancerous. If cells break away from a malignant tumor, they will enter the bloodstream, and spread throughout the body, damaging other parts of the body.

Quite often, cancer appears with no definite cause. However, there are some activities that people engage in, that increase the risk of cancer. Smoking can cause cancer of the lung, mouth, and throat. Alcohol can cause cancer of the mouth, throat, and liver. Also, exposure to radiation and sunlight (or ultra-violet rays) can cause skin cancer. The exact cause of cancer still remains a mystery.

Cancer can be detected early on by certain symptoms. As cancer progresses through it’s various stages, it will produce certain symptoms. The symptoms depend on the size and location of the cancer. In some areas, symptoms will not appear until the cancer is very large, making the cancer much more difficult to treat. The general symptoms of cancer are fever, fatigue, severe weight loss, an alter of metabolism, blood clots, weakness and dizziness, and sores that don’t heal.

There are various different methods of treatment for cancer. Surgery is typically the first choice of most patients. If the cancer is localized, meaning it hasn’t spread, surgery is the best option. The surgeon will remove the tumor and the surrounding tissue. Surgery offers the greatest chance of a cure. The next method of treatment, which is usually a patient’s second choice, is chemotherapy. This method treats cancer cells that have spread.

Chemotherapy is used depending on the type of cancer, and the stage it is in. Chemotherapy will usually slow the cancer down, and keep it from spreading, and occasionally offer a cure. Chemotherapy specifically treats cancer by injecting strong medicine to a patient, and allowing the drugs to travel throughout the body. This treatment is given in cycles. The total course lasts six months. It reduces the risk of the cancer returning. The side effects include vomiting, hair loss, infections, and fatigue. The last treatment, which is usually a last resort, is Radiation. Radiation also treats localized cancer. It destroys cancer cells, so they don’t multiply. It is used alone, or in addition to Chemotherapy. More than one half of people with cancer undergo Radiation. Radiation is the process of external high-energy rays or implants inserted near the tumor, destroying the cancer cells. Radiation is given five days a week for five to eight weeks.

There are certain kinds of doctors who specialize in the treatment of cancer. These doctors are known in the medical world as Hematologists and Oncologists. These doctors specialize in the medical diagnosis and the treatment of cancer. They specialize in choosing between chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery. They are trained to recognize the warning signs and symptoms of cancer, and to diagnose the various types of cancer.

The term remission refers to a period of time when the cancer is responding to its treatment. When a patient is in remission, the cancer is under control. When someone is in complete remission, all signs and symptoms disappear. In partial remission, the cancer shrinks, but is still there. Remission can last anywhere from several weeks to many years. If the disease returns, another remission can be followed by further treatment.

With all kinds of cancer, there are seven major warning signs. These seven signs found in one person would indicate that the person may be suffering from some type of cancer, and this person should see a doctor immediately. The seven warning signs are a significant change in bowel or bladder habits, a sore that does not heal, unusual bleeding or discharge, thickening or lumps in breast, indigestion or difficulty swallowing, obvious changes in wart or mole, and a nagging cough or hoarseness.
One specific type of cancer is called Angiosarcomas, or cancer of the endothelial cells. This is a rare, and very serious form of cancer. This type of cancer occurs in the head and neck region, and it usually appears in the scalp of the elderly. Occasionally it is found in the oral cavity. When it appears, it is usually a painless, rounded mass, and it may have a bluish hue. Once this tumor first appears, growth is very rapid. For the most part, treatment involves the surgical removal of the mass. However, this form of cancer is rather rare, and it is hard to diagnose early on. Because of this, about half of the individuals who suffer from it die within fifteen months of diagnosis, and only about twelve percent will live for five years or more. With this type of cancer, the earlier it is detected, the better the chance of survival. In other words, the smaller the tumor is when treatment begins, the better the chances of survival. While this disease has occurred in infants, it typically occurs in people with an average age of sixty-five years old. The lesion is usually painless. It is attached to surrounding tissues, and usually grows very rapidly. However, occasionally it can grow very slowly.

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SARS Research Paper

Many people in the United States are unaware of a new deadly disease, which is wreaking havoc throughout the world because of the intense coverage of the war in Iraq. However, SARS or severe acute respiratory syndrome has currently infected 2,601 people worldwide and has killed 98 people as of April 7, 2003. The United States has been lucky thus far because no deaths have been reported in America. However, there have been 115 suspected SARS cases that have occurred in 27 states including California and New York, which are two of the most populated states.

Currently, the World Health Organization has defined SARS as an “atypical pneumonia of unknown Etiology.” Although this disease is very new and not much is known about it, researchers still have made some significant progress. Scientists have been able to link this disease to an unrecognizable version of the corona virus. The corona virus is named after its crown-like appearance and commonly causes the infected patient to have upper-respiratory problems. The major difference between the corona virus and SARS is that people infected with the corona virus usually have weakened immune systems to begin with. On the contrary, most SARS victims have been adults who were healthy before being infected with this deadly virus. Also, the corona virus is very rare in humans, it is mostly found in animals like dogs and cats. This is why scientists are investigating the possibility that this unknown version of the corona virus called SARS has been passed on from animals to humans just like HIV did.

HIV is a very deadly disease, but it is preventable for the most part as long as you practice safe sex. On the other hand, SARS is nearly unavoidable because it is much like other respiratory illnesses, which spread from close contact. For example, if one of your classmates became infected with SARS and they cough or sneeze while in the classroom they will release tiny droplets of infected matter into the air. If you breathe the air that is infected, then you can also become infected with the killer virus.

Once you have contracted SARS its takes anywhere from two to seven days for symptoms to be noticeable. The major symptoms for this disease is having a fever of a 100.4 or higher, chills, headache, muscle soreness, and a general feeling of discomfort is also common. Approximately three to seven days after being infected with the virus people have been experiencing a dry cough that can turn into hypoxemia, which is when there is a reduced concentration of oxygen in the blood. Also, about fifteen percent of infected patients have needed some type of assistance breathing either through intubation or mechanical ventilation. Doctors have begun to treat patients with antibiotics, antiviral agents, and a combination of steroids and antimicrobials. All these treatments have showed mild success this far.

Even though there is not much known about this deadly virus, hopefully this essay has made you more aware of the process of how the SARS virus is spread, contracted, and cured. Currently, there are two patients in Santa Barbara who have contracted SARS. This is why must be aware of this virus because it is so deadly, its so close to home, and the initial symptoms seem like you just have the common cold. However, if you believe you may have contracted SARS it is extremely important that you see a doctor immediately because if it is treated early you have a better chance of surviving.

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Capital Punishment Essay

The execution of fellow human beings in the pursuit of justice is as old as human history. What began thousands of years ago as a profound method of retribution involving not only the families of the victims but often the whole town; has grown and shrunk, widened and narrowed, and within the last hundred years gradually been reduced to a small minority of countries still executing their citizens for convicted crimes. It is an issue strife with controversy, and is always surrounded by debate whenever approached. (See also: buy essay)

This paper will address the history of the death penalty, from the far and distant past, though history until we reach the death penalty that we are familiar with today. We will specifically address Capital Punishment within the United States, how our citizens view it and how citizens of other countries view the U.S. We will address Capital Punishment and the law, both within the Federal Legal system and the State legal systems.

Finally, we will conclude with a view into the validity of capital punishment as a useful tool within today’s society, how effective America’s legal system is in meting out accurate justice, and a glimpse into some alternate measures that could be implemented in place of the death penalty.

Stoning was the earliest form of execution with recorded stonings dating back to 3000 – 1000 B.C. There was no formal legal process at the time, therefore early executions by stoning were unceremonious and brutal affairs. A typical stoning would consist of a family member of the harmed party or a witness to the crime placing a hand on the head of the offender in order “to mark them for execution”. At this point, either one of the family members or the witness would cast the first stone. If he could not produce death alone, then the bystanders would hurl them also. As laws began to develop, Jewish law set forth a more involved execution ritual involving two witnesses, but the rudiments remained the same. “When the offender came within four cubits of the place of execution, he was stripped naked, only leaving a covering before, and his hands being bound was led up to the fatal place, which was an eminence twice a man’s height. The first executioner’s of the sentence were the witnesses, who generally pulled off their clothes for the purpose: one of them threw him down with great violence upon his loins: if he rolled upon his breast, he was turned upon his loins again, and if he died by the fall there was an end; but if not, the other witnesses took a great stone and dashed it upon his breast as he lay upon his back; and then, if he was not dispatched, all the people that stood by threw stones at him till he died.” (Johnson 11)

As history progressed more involved methods of execution were devised coupled with different forms of legal proceedings. Hanging by strangulation became a method of choice throughout much of the then “civilized world”. In the Middle Ages, executions became a sort of pageantry, involving the whole town in a form of brutal entertainment.

After being convicted of a crime and sentenced to death (Confessions were usually produced through torture immediately following capture) an elaborate ceremony followed in the town square. The accused would be paraded through the crowd, who were encouraged to heckle and ridicule. The accused was then led up before a nobleman or priest of the King’s courts who would notify him of his crime and pronounce him to be sentenced to death through various forms of mutilation and torture. Some of the more popular procedures were, hang the person, cut them down immediately prior to death, and then disembowel or carve out his intestines and cut him into four pieces (This is commonly known as “to draw and quarter”. Another method was known as “breaking on the wheel” The accused was placed upon a wheel-like platform. The executioner then proceeded to break the arms and legs of the accused with a heavy iron bar. The mangled remains were then turned rapidly, scattering gore about, until the victim was dead. Another popular medieval execution was “sawing the victim in pieces”, in this type, the accused would be strung up by his feet, and then sawed vertically in half, of course while still alive.

For certain crimes, the laws specified exactly what was to be done to the victim, down to the details to be performed on specific body parts. One such example of this follows, “Ye do respectively go to the place from whence ye came; from thence to be drawn upon a sledge to the place of execution, to be there hanged up by the neck, to be cut down while ye are yet alive, to have your hearts and bowels taken out before your faces, and your members cut off and burnt. Your heads severed from your bodies and your bodies disposed into quarters, your heads and bodies respectively disposed of according to the king’s will and pleasure; and the lord have mercy on your souls.” (Johnson 14) Needless to say executions of today are a little less violent than in the past.

Executions progressed throughout history with methods only limited to the imagination of men: Beheadings by Guillotine, Hangings on the Gallows, Firing Squads, Electric Chairs, Gas Chambers, and our most modern form of Capital Punishment, the lethal injection. We could devote an entire book on the history of executions, (which Robert Johnson has done in his book, Death Work) but, we must move on.

The United States is a fairly young country compared to many established in the world today and our legal system although young is used a basis for other legal system adaptations throughout the world. Having broke away from England and basing much of our law on the English system, it is not surprising that we brought over Capital Punishment and have had it within our legal system ever since (minus a short reprieve from 1967 to 1977).

The first recorded execution within the United States was in 1622 in the colony of Virginia, with Daniel Frank being put to death for theft. His method of execution was not stated. Although it is a known fact that the death penalty has been part of American history since before our independence, statistics were not collected until 1930 on a regular basis. From 1930 until 1967 (the year a moratorium was placed on executions) 3859 people were executed under civil jurisdiction within the U.S. Three out of every five executions that took place during that period occurred within the Southern states. Georgia had the highest total with 366 executions, followed closely by New York with 329, Texas with 297, California with 292, and North Carolina with 263. Out of those 3859 executions 3334 were for murder, 455 were for rape, and 70 were for other offenses. The United States Civilian legal system was not alone in laying out justice in the form of the death penalty. During the same period, the U.S. Army executed 160 people. 106 were for murder (21 of which also involved rape), 53 for rape, and one for desertion.

At the same time, across the Atlantic, Europe was taking the stance of abolishing the death penalty as cruel and unjust. In 1965, England abolished the death penalty under the 1965 Murder Act. Other countries across Europe were following suit if they had not already done so. The pressure from the European countries on the United States to abolish the death penalty continues to this day. Amnesty International is the largest advocate for a worldwide abolition of the death penalty and has garnered much support. Amnesty International is backed by the United Nations who has become a staunch ally to their cause. As time progresses and more and more countries abolish the death penalty, many foreigners, especially Europeans view the United States as hypocrites. The U.S. has always declared itself as a strong supporter of human rights yet most European nations view capital punishment as a violation of human rights. One such group, Death Penalty Focus, go so far as to blatantly declare the United States as “keeping company with notorious human rights abusing countries such as Iraq, Iran, and China as major advocates and users of capital punishment.”

Within the United States, public support for the death penalty remains fairly high in regard to cases involving atrocious acts of murder, yet support drops off rapidly when the offender is a minor or mentally retarded. Also, when Americans are presented with alternatives to the death penalty, a greater majority prefers life without parole to those who still favor the death penalty. Hart Research performed an interesting poll in 1995; polling police chiefs across the United States and asking them to list the most effective methods for deterring violent crime. Many answers were given in various ratios, from reducing drug abuse to better gun control but only 1% of those polled listed the death penalty as a major deterrent of violent crime.

Legal challenges to the death penalty culminated in the Supreme Court Decision Furman vs. Georgia, 408 U.S. 153 which ruled the death penalty statutes unconstitutional because under these statutes the death penalty was being applied in an “arbitrary, capricious and discriminatory manner” contrary to the eighth amendment and the due process guarantees of the Fourteenth amendment. Two of the justices (Justices Brennan and Marshall) presiding at the time declared capital punishment to be unconstitutional in all instances.

The decision of Furman vs. Georgia created waves across the entire country. More than 600 death row inmates who had been sentenced to death between 1967 and 1972 had their death sentences lifted as a result of the decision. States quickly moved to revise legislation tailored to satisfy the Supreme Court’s objections to “arbitrary imposition” of death sentences.

In 1976 three cases were brought before the Supreme Court regarding the same matter. The three cases were Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153 (1976), Jurek v. Texas, 428 U.S. 262 (1976) and Proffitt v. Florida, 428 U.S. 242 (1976). All three of these cases dealt with guided discretion and afforded sentencing courts the discretion to impose death sentences for specified crimes and provided for two-stage (bifurcated) trials. These “bifurcated” trials involved, in the first stage, the determination of the defendants guilt or innocence and, in the second, determination of the sentence after “consideration of aggravating and mitigating circumstances.” In Georgia and Texas the final sentencing decision rested with the jury and in Florida with the judge.

Also in 1976 two cases came forward to the Supreme Court, which dealt with laws providing for mandatory death penalty for specific crimes, and allowing no judicial or jury discretion beyond the determination of guilt. The Supreme Court declared that the mandatory death penalty was unconstitutional in Woodson v. North Carolina, 428 U.S. 280 (1976), and Roberts vs. Louisiana, 428 U.S 325 (1976). These rulings led directly to the invalidation of mandatory death penalty statutes in 21 states, and resulted in the modification of the sentences of hundreds of offenders from the death penalty to life sentences.

Under the new death penalty laws the first execution since 1967 took place on January 17, 1977. Convicted murderer Gary Gilmore was executed by firing squad in Utah. Although for the first several years following the new death penalty laws, executions stayed low, they began to climb once again in 1984 with 21 people executed and continued to rise rapidly with 74 executions in 1997.

The death penalty was effectively restricted to murder when the Supreme Court ruled it unconstitutional for rape in the 1977 decision of Coker v. Georgia, 433 U.S 584 (1977) because applying the death penalty in rape cases was disproportionate to the crime. This resulted in twenty inmates across the country being removed from death rows. Although the courts have accepted that this decision prohibits the imposition of the death penalty for all crimes not resulting in death, several states have left untouched the capital felony statutes which provide it for such offences as kidnapping and rape of a child.

As of 1998, 38 states and the federal government have capital punishment laws. The twelve states who do not have death penalty laws are: Alaska, Hawaii, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, North Dakota, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. The District of Columbia also does not have a capital punishment law.

The push to abolish capital punishment is growing while executions still continue. Some of the statistics on Capital punishment for the year 200 are as follows. (Taken from The U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics) In 2000 85 persons in fourteen states were executed: 40 in Texas, 11 in Oklahoma, 8 in Virginia, 6 in Florida, 5 in Missouri, 4 in Alabama, 3 in Arizona, 2 in Arkansas, and one each in Delaware, Louisiana, North and South Carolina, Tennessee, and California. Of those executed 49 were white, 35 were black, and 1 was American Indian. 83 were men and two were women. At the end of 2000, 37 states and the Federal prison System held 3593 prisoners under sentence of death. All had committed murder. Of the 3593 prisoners, nearly 2/3 had prior felony convictions and roughly 1/12 had a prior homicide conviction.

With this many inmates on death row the question continues to arise, “How can we insure that all the individuals we sentence to death row are 100% guilty?” Can we justify a system that executes for heinous and depraved acts of murder if we acknowledge there will be mistakes? Is the death of 100 depraved murderers worth the life of one innocent citizen wrongly convicted?

The Death Penalty Information Center in Washington D.C. stated in 1997 that of the 6000 death sentences imposed between 1973 and 1997, 400 have been innocent. Of those 400, 23 were wrongly executed. These are the injustices that many are claiming must cause the United States to abolish the death penalty. Furthermore, some studies question whether the death penalty actually deters crime. The Thorsten Sellin studies in 1962, 1967, and 1980 conclude that the death penalty was not a deterrent. Others argue that the staggering cost of death penalty cases could better be diverted to the victim’s families or for various prison counseling programs. A 1993 California study revealed that the average death penalty case cost at least 1.25 million dollars.

In conclusion, the arguments for and against capital punishment are limitless and answers may not come in our lifetimes, but one thing is certain; violent and heinous crimes have occurred throughout history and will continue to do so. Until we discover a way to eradicate these violent crimes, there will be a need for a stern and final method of justice. The law works to the best of its ability to insure that the guilty are proven guilty beyond doubt. This paper is not designed to influence ones decisions regarding the death penalty. It is designed to educate people on capital punishment and how it works.

The future may decide that the death penalty is a violation of human rights and cause capital punishment to be abolished. In order for that to happen, there must be a unanimous decision that an alternate means of justice is in place to punish those who seek to break the law by brutally taking the life of a fellow citizen. What that alternative will be, only time will tell.
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